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THE  STUDYand  PRACTICE 


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WRITING  ENGLISH 


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Study  and 


Southern  Branch 
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: 


THE  STUDY  AND  PRACTICE 
OF  WHITING  ENGLISH 


BY 


GERHARD   R.  LOMER,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

Instructor  in  English  in  the  School  of  Journalism 
Columbia  University  in  the  City  of  New  York 

AND 

MARGARET  ASHMUN,  M.A. 

Formerly  Instructor  in  English  in 

The  University  of  Wisconsin 

Editor  of  "  Prose  Literature  for  Secondary 

Schools,"  and  "Modern  Prose  and  Poetry 

for  Secondary  Schools." 


-     •  4 

*     »         •   • 

.  *     »       ••• 


-   *v   «■>   wp 


BOSTON     NEW  YORK    CHICAGO 

HOUGHTON   MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

€bc  ttmcisibe  prcdrf  Cambridge 


COPYRIGHT,    1914,    I917,    BY    GERHARD    R.    LOMER    AND    MARGARET    ASHMUN 
ALL   RIGHTS    RESERVED 


CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
U    .   S  .    A 


PREFACE 

In  several  years  of  experience  in  teaching  college  students  how 
to  write,  the  authors  have  found  that  most  of  the  available  text- 
books either  gave  an  amount  of  material  confusing  to  the  student, 
or  explained  matters  in  such  great  detail  that  the  instructor  was 
rendered  superfluous  or  else  was  reduced  to  the  status  of  a  quiz 
master. 
In  attempting  to  avoid  the  faults  of  ill-arrangement  and  of 

^    overelaboration,  the  writers  of  The  Study  and  Practice  have  had 

^    the  following  purposes  in  mind:  — 

{$-        (1)  To  gather  conveniently  into  one  volume  enough  material 

*"■    for  one  year's  work  of  average  Freshman  grade. 

(2)  To  reduce,  so  far  as  possible,  the  confusing  multiplicity  of 
formal  rules  to  a  systematic  and  practical  minimum. 

(3)  To  furnish  outlines  for  the  purpose  of  saving  time  ordi- 
narily spent  by  the  instructor  in  dictating  notes  and  by  the  stu- 
dent in  copying  them. 

(4)  To  supply  references  for  further  study  and,  for  additional 
practice,  a  number  of  exercises  drawn  from  the  writing  of  Fresh- 
men or  related  to  their  interests. 

The  order  of  the  topics  as  they  are  given  in  the  book  need  not 
necessarily  be  followed  in  teaching,  for  the  requirements  of  each 
group  of  students  will  naturally  condition  the  method  of  the 
instructor.  In  the  majority  of  cases  it  will  be  found  best  to  begin 
with  the  sections  on  taking  notes,  the  preparation  of  manuscript, 
and  theme-writing.  In  order  to  save  time  and  to  develop  a  valua- 
ble school  habit,  mechanical  excellence  of  manuscript  should  be 
one  of  the  first  ideals  to  be  inculcated.  The  use  of  the  typewriter 
is  becoming  more  and  more  general,  and  it  is  strongly  urged  that, 
when  machines  are  available,  work  be  typewritten. 

The  next  section  that  may  profitably  be  studied  involves  a  re- 
view of  punctuation  and  grammar;  here  the  emphasis  should  be 
placed  on  the  necessity  of  clearness  and  correctness  of  expression. 
The  section  on  language  either  may  be  taken  up  entire  in  courses 
where  emphasis  on  word-study  has  been  found  desirable,  or  it  may 


& 


IV 


PREFACE 


be  referred  to  at  appropriate  times  in  connection  with  other  por- 
tions of  the  textbook. 

Usually  some  volume  of  selections  will  be  used  as  well  as  The 
Study  and  Practice.  It  has  been  found,  for  instance,  that  the  work 
of  the  first  term  can  be  satisfactorily  correlated  with  Cunliffe  and 
Lomer's  Writing  of  Today  for  description,  exposition,  biography, 
and  criticism;  and  that  of  the  second  term,  with  Margaret  Ash- 
mun's  Modern  Short  Stories  or  Maxcy's  Representative  Narratives. 

A  large  amount  of  written  work  in  the  form  of  exercises  and 
themes  should  be  required.  For  a  three-hour  course,  fifteen  hun- 
dred words  a  week  has  not  been  found  to  be  excessive,  and  the 
improvement  in  writing  that  has  resulted  has  both  surprised  and 
encouraged  the  writers.  In  general,  two  hours  of  preparation  for 
each  hour  of  class-work  will  bring  the  best  results.  In  the  study  of 
the  so-called  "Forms  of  Discourse,"  it  is  not  expected  that  the 
student  will  have  time  to  complete  all  the  exercises.  Selection  or 
variation  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  instructor  and  the  specific 
needs  of  the  class.  It  is  suggested  that  progress  be  slow  and  par- 
ticularly thorough  during  the  earlier  weeks,  and  that  correct  copy 
be  insisted  upon.  It  is,  of  course,  taken  for  granted  that  correc- 
tion, revision,  re-writing,  and  personal  conferences  will  be  de- 
manded of  the  student. 

In  conclusion,  the  authors  offer  the  following  suggestions  re- 
garding the  point  of  view  of  the  instructor:  — 

1.  Enthusiastic  writing  on  the  part  of  the  students  is  encour- 
aged by  enthusiastic  teaching  on  the  part  of  the  instructor. 

2.  The  student's  dominant  interests  should  be  related  as  closely 
as  possible  to  his  own  writing  and  to  the  types  of  writing  which 
he  ordinarily  reads. 

3.  In  every  possible  way  the  student  should  be  encouraged  to 
find  himself,  to  express  his  personality,  and  to  develop  his  literary 
originality  as  far  as  he  can.  Rules  are  useful  only  for  guidance; 
they  are  not  an  end  in  themselves.  Formalism  and  the  memoriz- 
ing of  rules  have  little  place  in  the  modern  study  and  practice  of 
writing  English. 

Gerhard  R.  Lomer. 
Margaret  Ashmun. 
June  28,  1917. 


CONTENTS 

I.  Established  Usages 

1.  Punctuation 1 

2.  Capitals 30 

3.  Italics 33 

4.  Abbreviations 35 

5.  The  Representation  of  Number 37 

6.  Syllabification 39 

7.  Rules  for  Plurals 40 

8.  Possessives 43 

9.  Rules  for  Spelling 45 

II.  Grammatical  Requirements 

1.  Syntax 49 

2.  Sequence  of  Tenses 55 

3.  Shall  and  Will 58 

4.  Voice 61 

5.  Irregular  Verbs 63 

6.  Sentence  Structure 67 

7.  Paragraphs 98 

III.  The  Use  of  Language 

1.  The  Study  of  Language Ill 

2.  Some  Suggestions  for  the  Study  of  Words       .      .      .  120 

3.  The  Use  of  the  Dictionary 121 

4.  Synonyms 127 

5.  Some  Common  Latin  Roots  133 

6.  Prefixes 134 

7.  Suffixes 135 

8.  English  Words  for  Analysis 136 


vi  CONTENTS 

9.  The  Idiomatic  Use  of  Prepositions 138 

10.  Foreign  Words  commonly  used  in  English      .       .      .  140 

11.  Phrases  from  Foreign  Languages 142 

12.  Style 145 

13.  Figures  of  Speech 157 

14.  Diacritical  Marks 164 

15.  Words  commonly  mispronounced 165 

16.  Common  Errors  in  Speech  and  Writing    ....  167 

17.  Vulgarisms 184 

18.  Hackneyed  Expressions 185 

19.  Hackneyed  Quotations 186 

IV.  Written  Composition 

1.  Steps  in  Theme- Writing  191 

2.  Outlines 193 

3.  The  Preparation  of  Manuscript 199 

4.  Marks  for  the  Correction  of  Themes        ....  202 

5.  Short-Theme  Subjects 203 

6.  Long-Theme  Subjects 206 

7.  How  to  take  Notes 208 

8.  Quotations 215 

9.  References  and  Footnotes 219 

10.  Making  a  Bibliography 221 

V.  Forms  of  Discourse 

1.  Description 224 

2.  Exposition 241 

3.  Definition 251 

4.  Argumentation 254 

5.  Biography 260 

6.  Narration 267 

7.  A  Specific  Study  of  the  Short  Story 269 

8.  The  Drama 294 

9.  Translation 308 


CONTENTS  vii 

VI.   Correspondence 

1.  Social  and  Friendly  Letters 312 

2.  Commercial  Correspondence 319 

VII.  The  Use  of  Books 

1.  The  Library  and  its  Arrangement 328 

2.  The  Library  Catalogue 333 

The  Author  Card  —  The  Subject  Card  —  The  Title 
Card  —  Cross- References  —  Analytics  —  Use  of 
the  Card  Index  and  File. 

3.  The  Make-up  of  a  Book 342 

Appendix 

I.  Miscellaneous  Faulty  Sentences  for  Correction  .      .      348 
II.  A  Working  Library  of  Books  on  Composition     .       .      357 

Index 363 


THE  STUDY  AND  PRACTICE 
OF  WRITING  ENGLISH 


ESTABLISHED  USAGES 
I.  PUNCTUATION 

Punctuation  is  a  convenient  mechanical  device  foi 
indicating  or  assuring  the  unity,  the  coherence,  or  the 
emphasis  implied  in  the  written  expression  of  thought. 
Punctuation  is  not  an  end  in  itself;  it  merely  helps  to  sug- 
gest pauses,  inflections,  and  intonations  that  in  oral  expres- 
sion are  of  great  value  in  making  a  thought  clear.  In  the 
use  of  punctuation,  the  student  must  master  certain  recog- 
nized conventions  that  depend  upon  a  few  underlying 
principles.  The  more  important  general  rules  admit  of  little 
latitude  for  personal  opinion  in  their  application,  since 
they  are  tacitly  accepted  by  all  who  aspire  to  be  careful 
writers.  Other  rules,  though  less  binding,  are  indicative  of 
what  is  considered  good  form  in  writing  and  are  a  proof  of 
literary  training  and  experience.  In  minor  matters,  a 
degree  of  personal  freedom  in  punctuation  is  permitted. 
On  the  whole,  until  a  writer  has  become  thoroughly  in- 
formed as  to  the  best  practice,  he  will  do  well  to  allow 
himself  very  little  license  in  the  use  of  the  marks  of  punc- 
tuation. He  should  carefully  apply  the  rules  that  have 
been  agreed  upon  by  students  of  language  as  the  most 
efficient  in  supplementing  the  written  word. 


ESTABLISHED   USAGES 


The  chief  marks  of  punctuation  are: 
Period 

• 

Question  mark,  or 
Exclamation  point 
Colon 

interrogation  point 

? 

! 

• 
• 

Semicolon 

• 
» 

Comma 

♦ 

Dash 

— 

Apostrophe 
Quotation  marks 
Parentheses 

'  (above  the  line) 

M            »          *           9 

Brackets 

[      1 

Hyphen 

The  Period 

M 

1 .  A  complete  declarative  or  imperative  sentence  should 
be  followed  by  a  period. 

(a)  The  sun  is  shining. 

(b)  Give  me  the  rifle. 

Exception.  The  rule  given  above  is  extremely  important, 
and  it  should,  in  general,  be  strictly  adhered  to;  nevertheless, 
good  usage  furnishes  an  exception:  Two  or  more  sentences 
that  are  closely  connected  in  thought  may  be  separated  merely 
by  commas,  if  these  sentences  are  very  short,  and  are  parallel  in 
construction. 

(a)  She  laughed,  she  sang,  she  danced. 

(6)  It  rained,  it  hailed,  it  snowed,  and  it  blew  great  guns. 

N.B.  For  a  further  note  on  this  point,  see  under  the 
Comma,  page  15. 

2.  A  fragment  or  a  subordinate  part  of  a  sentence 

should  not  be  followed  by  a  period,  unless  there  is  nothing 

present  for  the  partial  sentence  to  adhere  to,  and  unless  the 

sense  is  clearly  and  completely  understood. 

Bad:  He  was  very  inadequately  prepared.  Which  fact  soon 
became  apparent. 


PUNCTUATION  3 

Correct:  He  was  very  inadequately  prepared,  which  fact 

soon  became  apparent. 
Bad:  I  had  not  reckoned  with  my  enemy.  As  I  was  after- 
ward to  learn. 
Correct:  I  had  not  reckoned  with  my  enemy,  as  I  was  after- 
ward to  learn. 
Note  :  Sometimes  a  fragment  of  a  sentence  is  accepted  as  a 
complete  thought.  The  expressions  Yes,  Not  so,  Of  course,  etc., 
are  really  condensed  sentences,  and  may  properly  be  followed 
by  periods.    In  conversation,  a  fragment  of  a  sentence  may 
often,  with  good  reason,  be  followed  by  a  period  as  if  it  were  a 
complete  sentence. 

"Did  you  find  it  on  the  floor?" 

"On  the  floor.  What  have  you  to  say ? " 

3.  An  abbreviation  should  be  followed  by  a  period. 
M.D.;  e.g.;  Assoc;  Bros.;  ibid.;  R.S.V.P. 

The  Question  Mark 

1 .  The  question  mark  should  follow  a  direct  question. 
Have  you  heard  the  news? 

Caution:  The  question  mark  should  not  be  used  after  an 
indirect  question  unless  the  main  sentence  in  which  the  indirect 
question  is  embedded  is  also  interrogative  in  character. 

Wrong:  He  asked  me  whether  I  had  heard  the  news? 

Right:  He  asked  me  whether  I  had  heard  the  news. 

Right:  Did  he  ask  you  whether  you  had  heard  the  news? 

2.  The  question  mark  is  used  to  indicate  doubt  as  to  the 
truth  of  an  assertion. 

Correct:  George  Chapman  was  born  in  1559(?). 

3.  The  question  mark  should  not  be  used  to  call  atten- 
tion to  an  ironical  expression. 

Undesirable:  He  certainly  is  a  brilliant  (?)  young  person. 
Better:  He  certainly  is  a  brilliant  young  person. 


4  ESTABLISHED   USAGES 

The  Exclamation  Point 

1.  The  exclamation  point  is  used  after  interjections, 
exclamatory  sentences,  and  words  or  names  pronounced 
with  emotional  emphasis. 

Listen!  Listen!  Do  you  hear? 

There  are  horses  many!  Now  they  stop! 

Ah,  now 
Feet  on  the  threshold! 

Maeterlinck. 

2.  The  exclamation  point  should  not  be  used  where  the 
comma  will  do  as  well. 

(a)  Oh,  dear,  no.  I  never  thought  of  such  a  thing. 

(b)  "For  the  land  sake,  Susannah,"  cried  Arietta,  advanc- 
ing upon  her,  "what  are  you  doin'?" 

3.  The  exclamation  point  is  sometimes  used,  within 
parentheses,  for  the  sake  of  an  ironical  or  astonished  com- 
mentary on  what  has  been  said.  This  practice  is  not  to  be 
recommended. 

Undesirable:  He  praised  my  meekness  (!)  and  said  it  was 
a  noble  example  to  his  sisters. 

Better:  He  praised  my  meekness,  and  said  it  was  a  noble 
example  to  his  sisters. 

The  Colon 

I.  The  colon  is  used  as  a  formal  introduction  to  an 
important  word  or  expression,  a  list,  a  series  of  statements 
or  questions,  or  a  quotation  of  some  length. 

(a)  He  sent  in  an  order  for  the  following  books:  George 
Meredith's  The  Egoist;  Mrs.  GaskelFs  The  Life  of  Char- 
lotte Bronte;  John  Fiske's  The  Beginnings  of  New  Eng- 
land; and  Hawthorne's  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse. 

(b)  Not  content  with  this,  Hawthorne  adds  a  few  com- 
ments at  the  end,  exactly  as  would  be  done  in  a  formal 
sermon:  "Woe  for  the  high-souled  youth,  with  his 
dream  of  Earthly  Immortality!   His  name  and  person 


PUNCTUATION  5 

utterly  unknown;  his  history,  his  way  of  life,  his  plans,  a 
mystery  never  to  be  solved;  his  death  and  existence 
equally  a  doubt!"  C.  A.  Smith:  The  American  Short 
Story. 

(c)  There  were  two  things  that  I  looked  upon  with  equal 
abhorrence :  the  slatternly  housekeeper  and  the  slave  to 
a  domestic  routine. 

2.  The  colon  is  sometimes  used  to  introduce  a  series  of 

thoughts  which  are  an  illustration  or  an  elaboration  of  a 

preceding  general  thought.    In  such  a  case,  the  material 

following  the  colon  is  in  a  sense  in  apposition  with  that 

preceding.  This  use  of  the  colon  is  not  to  be  recommended 

to  the  unskilled  writer. 

Permissible:  Everywhere  the  signs  of  the  gentle  faith  ap- 
pear: its  ideographs  and  symbols  are  chiseled  upon  the 
faces  of  the  rocks;  its  icons  smile  upon  you  from  every 
shadowy  recess  by  the  way;  even  the  very  landscape 
betimes  would  seem  to  have  been  moulded  by  the  soul  of 
it,  where  the  hills  rise  softly  as  a  prayer.  Lafcadio 
Hearn:  Glimpses  of  Unfamiliar  Japan. 

The  Semicolon 

The  semicolon  occupies,  theoretically,  a  position  mid- 
way between  the  period  and  the  comma.  It  can  be  made  to 
show,  at  the  same  time,  logical  connection  and  grammati- 
cal separation.  It  is  a  most  expressive  mark,  and  the  ability 
to  use  it  effectively  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
trained  writer. 

I .  The  semicolon  may  be  used  to  separate  the  two  or 
more  parts  of  a  compound  sentence  in  which  the  conjunc- 
tion is  expressed  or  understood. 

(a)  The  animal  was  apparently  as  exhausted  as  I  was;  that 
was  one  comfort. 

(b)  In  his  desire  to  be  particular,  Gissing  describes  a  man 
on  one  page  as  a  lawyer  and  on  another  as  a  dentist;  but 
this  is  a  detail  hardly  worth  mentioning. 


6  ESTABLISHED   USAGES 

In  such  a  sentence  as  that  given  above,  the  quality  of  the 
second  clause  seems  to  demand  a  more  positive  mark  than  the 
comma.  The  semicolon  gives  just  the  right  shade  of  suspense 
between  the  two  parts  of  the  sentence,  —  shows,  as  it  were,  a 
pause  for  consideration  and  conclusion.  There  are  many 
similar  cases  in  which  the  semicolon  can  be  made  equally  sig- 
nificant as  a  division  between  the  parts  of  the  compound  sen- 
tence. 

2.  The  semicolon  may  be  used  to  separate  a  series  of 

long  subordinate  sentence  elements. 

The  semicolon  is  especially  valuable  if  the  phrases  or 
clauses  combined  in  a  sentence  have  commas  within  them- 
selves, or  if  they  are  so  long  as  to  present  a  confusing  or  a  for- 
midable appearance.  Even  where  the  subordinate  elements  are 
not  long,  they  are  often  given  an  individual  value  through 
being  separated  by  the  semicolon. 

There  I  learned  that  the  stranger  had  arrived  late  one  dark 
rainy  night,  after  the  landlord  and  his  family  had  gone 
to  bed;  that  he  had  remained  three  days  in  his  room,  ven- 
turing out  only  in  the  evening  and  the  early  morning; 
and  that  he  had  departed  at  last  as  mysteriously  as  he 
had  come. 

3.  It  is  customary  to  place  a  semicolon  before  the  con- 
junctive adverbs  therefore,  hence,  accordingly,  however, 
nevertheless,  also,  otherwise,  moreover,  and  others  of  a  like 
nature. 

This  rule  should,  in  general,  be  very  strictly  applied. 

(a)  She  was  a  woman;  therefore  she  made  excuses  for  him  in 
her  heart. 

(6)  My  cousin  had  lived  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in 
France;  thus  it  happened  that,  when  he  arrived  at  our 
house  that  day,  not  one  of  the  family  recognized  him. 

(c)  I  do  not  think  that  he  is  at  home;  however,  I  will  make 
inquiries  at  once. 

'  4«  The  semicolon  should  usually  precede  as,  namely,  and 
thus  when  they  are  used  to  introduce  examples  and  illus- 
trations. 


PUNCTUATION  7 

The  plaintiff  solemnly  denied  two  of  the  charges;  namely, 
breaking  into  the  desk,  and  destroying  the  memoran- 
dum of  his  father's  liabilities. 

5.  A  semicolon  may  be  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  any 
sentence  when  a  comma  would  be  misleading  or  insuffi- 
cient. 

Bad:  He  killed  the  duck  and  the  chicken,  and  the  child 
stood  watching  him  in  fascinated  horror. 

Better:  He  killed  the  duck  and  the  chicken;  and  the  child 
stood  watching  him  in  fascinated  horror. 

EXERCISE 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  The  problems  that  confront  us  now  are  two  ought  we  to  go 
and  ought  we  to  publish  our  reasons 

2.  He  sent  me  home  for  his  heavy  overcoat  hence  I  was  not  at 
my  desk  when  the  secretary  called  to  see  me 

3.  The  walls  were  covered  with  vines  and  brilliant  flowers 
nodded  at  the  windows 

4.  You  gave  me  no  peace  until  I  made  a  promise  therefore  I 
capitulated  the  more  readily 

5.  To  make  this  clear  we  must  distinguish  three  classes  who 
stand  in  a  certain  relation  to  education  in  modern  England 
first  the  schoolmasters  who  nominally  manage  the  schools 
secondly  the  mass  of  the  public  who  send  their  sons  to  the 
schools  thirdly  the  educational  theorists  who  write  books 

6.  He  was  courteous  not  cringing  to  superiors  affable  not  famil- 
iar to  equals  and  kind  but  not  condescending  or  supercilious 
to  inferiors 

7.  I  did  not  believe  his  story  nevertheless  I  pretended  to  put  all 
confidence  in  the  tale 

8.  Thus  pressed  I  gave  them  my  most  sufficient  reasons  whereat 
they  burst  into  immoderate  roars  of  laughter 

9.  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident  that  all  men  are 
created  equal  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 
certain  inalienable  rights  that  among  these  are  life  liberty 
and  the  pursuit  of  happiness 

10.  Three  states  have  already  passed  such  laws  namely  Montana 
Colorado  and  California 


8  ESTABLISHED   USAGES 

11.  The  following  groups  of  men  are  dissatisfied  those  who  out  of 
their  own  means  contributed  to  the  cause  those  who  in  one 
way  or  another  assisted  with  the  actual  labor  and  those  who 
whether  through  poverty  or  indifference  did  nothing  at  all 

12.  The  man  who  thus  exquisitely  repainted  these  pictures  in 
words  had  three  great  gifts  vivid  memories  of  childhood  ex- 
periences the  heart  of  a  child  to  interpret  them  and  a  wonder- 
ful power  of  verbal  expression 

13.  Richardson  with  perfectly  unconscious  humor  divided  his 
characters  into  three  classes  men  women  and  Italians 

14.  Kipling  feels  the  presence  of  romance  in  shot  and  shell  as  well 
as  in  buff  jerkins  in  existing  superstitions  as  well  as  the  old  in 
the  lightning  express  as  in  the  stage-coach  in  the  fishing 
schooner  as  in  the  viking  ship  in  the  loves  of  Mulvaney  and 
Dinah  as  in  Ivanhoe  and  Rowena  in  the  huge  python  as  in  the 
fire-breathing  dragon 

15.  Like  the  sonnet  the  short-story  must  be  a  unit  giving  expres- 
sion to  one  emotion  or  a  series  of  emotions  possessing  a  unity 
of  tone  its  characters  must  be  few  its  action  must  be  simple 
it  tells  something  but  it  suggests  more 

16.  This  was  the  way  it  happened  four  years  ago  my  company 
sent  me  out  to  Montana  to  investigate  the  titles  of  some 
ranches  that  they  intended  to  buy 

17.  The  captain  was  by  this  time  ready  to  look  into  the  matter 
moreover  he  felt  that  he  had  really  made  a  mistake 

The  Comma 

1.  The  comma  is  used  to  set  off  parenthetic  material,  — 
that  is,  material  thrown  into  a  sentence  for  purposes  of 
explanation. 

(a)  The  question,  I  own,  puzzled  me. 

(6)  He,  however,  was  likely  to  ride  his  hobby  in  his  own 

way. 
(c)  He  would  arrive,  it  was  true,  somewhat  after  dark. 

2.  The  comma  should  be  used  to  inclose  a  noun  in 
apposition  (together  with  its  modifiers). 

(a)  On  the  doorstep  stood  Bill  Gray,  the  widow's  eldest  son. 

(b)  Mr.  Hennessey,  the  foreman,  was  much  impressed. 


PUNCTUATION  9 

(c)  At  Verona,  the  county  seat,  we  stopped  for  dinner. 

Exception:  This  rule  is  to  be  disregarded,  — 

(a)  When  the  appositive  is  a  title  that  has  become  a  part  of 
a  name. 

Peter  the  Hermit;  Philip  the  Fair;  John  the  Evan- 
gelist. 

(6)  When  the  appositive  is  so  closely  connected  with  the 
noun  it  modifies  that  a  separation  is  illogical. 

The  first  to  speak  was  his  friend  Charles. 

(c)  When  a  word  or  a  phrase  is  spoken  of  in  such  a  way  that 
attention  is  called  to  it  for  its  own  sake. 

(1)  The  word  swell  is  not  in  good  use. 

(2)  The  expression  "Cheese  it"  was  once  a  popular 
slang  phrase. 

3.  The  comma  is  used  to  inclose  a  name  or  title  used  in 
direct  address,  —  that  is,  as  a  vocative. 

(a)  I  want  to  say,  friends,  that  this  sort  of  thing  must 
stop. 

(b)  I  believe,  Mr.  Farley,  that  we  have  made  a  mistake. 

4.  The  comma  should  be  used  to  inclose  a  geographical 
name  used  after  another  to  show  relative  location. 

(a)  Our  train  stopped  at  Hope,  Idaho. 

(b)  My  brother  who  lives  in  Rouen,  France,  is  coming  to 
America  next  year. 

5.  The  comma  should  be  used  to  separate  the  clauses  of 
a  compound  sentence  if  those  clauses  are  short  and  have 
little  or  no  interior  punctuation. 

If  the  clauses  are  long  or  if  they  have  commas  within  them- 
selves, the  semicolon  may  be  used  to  separate  them. 

(a)  His  wet  feet  were  freezing,  and  his  exposed  fingers  were 
growing  numb. 

(b)  He  was  a  warm-whiskered  man,  but  the  hair  on  his  face 
did  not  protect  the  high  cheek-bones  and  the  eager  nose 
that  thrust  itself  aggressively  into  the  frosty  air. 


10  ESTABLISHED   USAGES 

6.  The  comma  should  be  used  to  set  off  a  dependent 
clause  preceding  its  independent  clause. 

(a)  When  I  looked  at  my  watch  again,  I  found  that  it  had 
stopped. 

(b)  Although  he  was  an  extremely  busy  man,  he  never 
refused  to  help  me  when  I  asked  him. 

7.  A  series  of  adjectives  should  usually  be  separated  by 
commas. 

(a)  The  balloon  rose  higher  into  the  clear,  cold,  bracing  air. 

(b)  He  was  a  stubby  little  man  with  a  red  face  and  a  bris- 
tling, close-cropped  mustache. 

Note  :  There  are  many  occasions  on  which  this  rule  is  to  be 
disregarded.  If  the  adjective  nearest  the  noun  seems  to  be  a 
part  of  the  idea  expressed  by  the  noun,  it  is  likely  that  the 
other  adjectives  modify  the  whole  ensuing  combination  of 
noun  and  adjective;  in  such  a  case,  no  comma  need  be  placed 
between  the  last  and  the  next  to  the  last  adjective. 

He  wore  a  short  black  alpaca  coat  and  a  large  white  cravat. 

Short  seems  to  modify  black  alpaca  coat,  which  combination 
of  words  may  be  considered  as  a  unit.  No  comma  is  needed 
between  short  and  black.  Large,  modifying  white  cravat,  need 
not  be  followed  by  a  comma.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  tell 
whether  the  comma  is  desirable  or  not.  A  study  of  the  best 
usage  will  be  helpful.  On  the  whole,  the  modern  tendency  is  to 
lessen  rather  than  to  increase  the  amount  of  punctuation  used 
in  ordinary  prose  discourse. 

8.  A  comma  should  precede  and,  or,  or  nor,  used  to  con- 
nect the  last  two  links  of  a  sequence  of  three  or  more :  — 

(a)  MerimeVs  stories  are  hard,  ironical,  and  cynical. 

(6)  You  ought  to  write,  telegraph,  or  telephone  your  family. 

Note:  A  notion  exists  that  a  comma  should  not  be  used 
before  and.  This  idea  is  illogical.  The  above  rule  should  be 
strictly  applied. 

9.  Absolute  phrases  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 

The  house  being  in  a  state  of  disorder,  we  decided  to  go  to  a 
hotel. 


PUNCTUATION  11 

10.  The  comma  should  follow  any  expression  equivalent 

to  he  said,  introducing  a  direct  quotation. 

Stepping  close  to  the  little  old  woman,  he  shouted  in  her 
ear,  "That  train  left  an  hour  ago." 

11.  A  comma  may  be  used  to  set  off  an  introductory 
phrase  of  considerable  length  or  of  complicated  structure. 

With  the  kindest  intentions  and  the  most  unimpeachable 
motives,  I  was  made  to  appear  a  detestable  notoriety- 
seeker. 

Note:  Very  short  introductory  phrases  should  not  be  set 
off  by  any  mark  of  punctuation. 

In  the  late  afternoon  I  took  a  walk  along  the  river. 

12.  A  comma  may  be  inserted  where  a  pause  is  needed  in 
a  sentence  and  no  other  mark  of  punctuation  is  suitable. 

13.  A  comma  may  be  used  where  it  will  remove  any 
obscurity  in  a  sentence. 

Into  the  envelopes  filed  there,  goes  a  wealth  of  material 
clipped  from  the  magazines  of  the  day. 

14.  A  comma  should  set  off  a  nonrestrictive  phrase  or 

clause. 

A  full  discussion  of  the  punctuation  of  restrictive  and  non- 
restrictive  phrases  and  clauses  is  given  below. 

The  omission  of  the  comma  with  restrictive  phrases  and 

clauses 

A  restrictive  adjectival  phrase  or  clause  is  one  that  modi- 
fies a  noun  or  pronoun  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  essential  to 
the  completeness  of  the  sentence  in  which  the  phrase  or 
clause  occurs.  It  cannot  be  omitted  without  changing  the 
sense,  since  it  is  so  closely  attached  to  the  substantive  it 
modifies  that  it  restricts  or  limits  the  meaning  of  that  sub- 
stantive in  a  clear  and  definite  manner.  The  restrictive 
phrase  or  clause  is  not  separated  by  any  mark  of  punctua- 
tion from  the  noun  it  modifies. 


12  ESTABLISHED   USAGES 

Restrictive  phrase:  The  glass  filled  with  the  clear  water  was 
placed  upon  the  table;  that  filled  with  the  brownish 
liquid  was  put  away  in  the  cupboard. 

The  phrases  filled  with  the  clear  water  and  filled  with  the 
brownish  liquid  are  restrictive ;  in  each  case  they  point  out  the 
glass  intended,  —  that  is,  restrict  or  narrow  down  the  applica- 
tion of  the  word  glass.  They  could  not  be  omitted  without  des- 
troying the  sense  of  the  sentence. 

Restrictive  clause:  The  student  who  ignores  the  regulations 
will  not  be  permitted  to  take  part  in  the  play. 

The  clause  who  ignores  the  regulations  tells  definitely  what 
student  is  meant.  It  restricts  or  narrows  the  application  of  the 
noun  student.  It  cannot  be  omitted  without  destroying  the 
sense  that  is  intended.   No  comma  should  precede  the  clause. 

Correct:  She  lost  the  ring  that  her  mother  had  given  her. 

Correct:  A  gentleman  has  been  defined  as  a  man  who  has  no 
visible  means  of  support. 

The  use  of  the  comma  with  nonrestrictive  phrases  and 

clauses 

A  nonrestrictive  adjectival  phrase  or  clause  modifies, 
though  very  loosely,  a  noun  or  pronoun;  the  information 
that  it  gives  is  not  essential  to  the  grammatical  complete- 
ness or  the  sense  of  the  sentence.  Since  it  is  merely  paren- 
thetic in  character,  a  nonrestrictive  phrase  or  clause  can 
be  omitted  without  serious  damage  to  the  sentence.  Such  a 
clause  should  be  separated  from  its  substantive  by  commas. 

Nonrestrictive  phrase:  Her  basket,  filled  with  berries  that 
she  had  gathered  in  the  woods,  was  found  upon  the  grass. 

Here  the  identity  of  the  basket  is  clear,  whether  the  phrase 
be  omitted  or  not.  The  phrase  does  not  restrict  the  application 
of  the  noun  basket;  it  simply  gives  parenthetical  information 
about  the  basket  in  question.  It  is  nonrestrictive,  and  should 
be  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Nonrestrictive  clause:  Arthur  Doulton,  who  had  ignored  all 
the  regulations,  was  forbidden  to  take  part  in  the  play. 

Here  the  miscreant  is  identified  by  his  name ;  the  clause  who 


PUNCTUATION  13 

had  ignored  all  the  regulations  does  not  point  him  out,  but  merely 
adds  a  comment  upon  him.  The  clause  is  nonrestrictive,  and  is 
properly  set  off  by  commas. 

Correct:  I  asked  Mr.  Jaffrey,  who  had  given  much  attention 
to  such  matters,  but  he  was  forced  to  confess  his  igno- 
rance. 
Correct:  This  book,  which  I  had  once  regarded  as  a  reposi- 
tory of  chemical  secrets,  now  began  to  seem  quite  com- 
monplace. 

The  test  for  restrictive  and  nonrestrictive  phrases  and 

clauses 
From  the  foregoing  remarks  upon  restrictive  and  non- 
restrictive  phrases  and  clauses,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a 
test  by  means  of  which  the  nature  of  the  modifier  can  be 
ascertained,  and  with  it  the  necessity  for  the  use  of  com- 
mas. This  test  is  merely  leaving  the  phrase  or  clause  out 
of  the  sentence  and  then  judging  whether  the  sense  in- 
tended is  impaired:  — 

(a)  If  the  phrase  or  clause  cannot  be  omitted  without  destroying 
the  sense  of  the  sentence,  it  is  restrictive.  It  should  not  be  set 
off  from  the  word  it  modifies. 

(b)  If  the  phrase  or  clause  can  be  omitted  without  damage  to 
the  intended  meaning  of  the  sentence,  it  is  nonrestrictive. 
It  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by 
commas. 

Note  :  There  may  be  a  few  cases  in  which  the  application  of 
this  test  will  still  leave  doubt;  in  such  cases,  one  must  decide  by 
reference  to  the  concext,  or  content  himself  with  remaining 
unenlightened. 

The  following  table  may  be  helpful  in  the  study  of  restric- 
tive and  nonrestrictive  clauses:  — 


14 


ESTABLISHED   USAGES 


Restrictive 

Clause 

nonrestrictive 
Clause 

Noun  modified  is 

Vague,  general, 
and  not  limited 
without  the  clause 

Already  definite, 
particular,  limited, 
individual 

Function  of  clause  is 

To  denote,  define, 
or  make  definite; 
to  limit  or  restrict 
the  meaning  of  the 
noun  to  a  particu- 
lar case 

To  describe;  to 
give  additional  or 
parenthetic  infor- 
mation 

Punctuation 

No  mark  of  punc- 
tuation 

Commas 

EXERCISE 

Distinguish  between  restrictive  and  nonrestrictive  clauses. 
Insert  commas  where  they  are  needed. 

1.  Formerly  the  students  who  did  not  care  to  attend  the  game 
gave  their  tickets  to  outsiders. 

2.  Her  eldest  child  who  is  only  ten  years  old  plays  the  piano 
remarkably  well. 

3.  Henry  Slocum  who  is  a  friend  of  mine  is  the  leader  of  this 
faction. 

4.  They  decided  to  present  Hamlet  which  always  appeals  to  the 
public. 

5.  Even  he  who  has  committed  the  most  outrageous  crime  has 
still  a  heart. 

6.  The  school  that  he  attended  did  not  rank  very  high  in  the 
opinion  of  his  relatives. 

7.  Our  campus  which  is  more  beautiful  than  that  of  our  rival 
college  attracts  many  students  to  the  University. 

8.  This  is  not  the  horse  that  I  bought. 

9.  This  gentleman,  who  is  a  stranger  to  the  city  wishes  to  know 
where  a  telegraph  office  may  be  found. 


PUNCTUATION  15 

10.  The  archaeologist  gave  a  long  lecture  on  a  statue  that  some- 
body had  lately  discovered  in  Greece. 

11.  He  went  to  Jackson  which  is  a  mountain  town  in  Kentucky. 

12.  He  was  writing  a  Life  of  Napoleon  who  had  always  been  his 
favorite  hero. 

13.  The  change  that  had  taken  place  in  Mr.  O'Rourke's  affec- 
tions showed  itself  in  occasional  fits  of  sullenness. 

14.  The  man  who  turned  out  to  be  a  distant  relative  of  mine  gave 
me  a  book  that  had  once  belonged  to  my  grandfather. 

15.  The  paragraph  which  produced  this  singular  effect  on  the 
aged  couple  occurred  at  the  end  of  a  column  of  telegraph 
dispatches  giving  the  details  of  an  unimportant  engagement 
that  had  just  taken  place  between  one  of  the  blockading 
squadron  and  a  Confederate  cruiser. 

16.  The  doctor's  old  horse  which  grows  lazier  every  day  will  soon 
be  fit  only  to  work  on  the  farm. 

1 7.  Alaska  which  was  once  a  Russian  province  is  now  an  Ameri- 
can possession. 

18.  The  last-named  college  which  is  attended  by  students  of 
many  different  faiths  does  not  have  a  chapel. 

19.  That  tall  student  who  is  a  great  favorite  with  his  classmates 
has  just  been  elected  president  of  the  Athletic  Association. 

20.  I  shingled  the  sides  of  my  house  which  were  already  impervi- 
ous to  rain  with  imperfect  and  sappy  shingles  made  of  the 
first  slices  of  the  log. 

21.  Whenever  a  storm  which  they  wished  to  avert  was  threaten- 
ing they  would  run  out  and  fire  at  the  rising  cloud  whooping 
yelling  whistling  and  beating  their  drum. 

22.  I  usually  carried  my  dinner  of  bread  and  butter  and  read  the 
newspaper  in  which  it  was  wrapped  at  noon  sitting  among  the 
green  pine  boughs  which  I  had  cut  off. 

23.  There  was  only  here  and  there  a  board  which  would  not  bear 
removal. 

Cautions  to  be  observed  in  using  the  comma 

I.  Do  not  separate  complete  sentences  by  the  comma; 
use  the  semicolon,  the  period,  the  question  mark,  or  the 
exclamation  point. 

Exception  :  Very  short  sentences  that  are  closely  connected 


16  ESTABLISHED   USAGES 

in  thought  and  parallel  in  construction  may  be  separated  by 
commas.  See  The  Period,  Rule  1,  page  2  (Exception). 

Incorrect:  The  animal  was  depressed  by  the  tremendous 

cold,  it  knew  that  this  was  no  time  for  traveling. 
Correct:  The  animal  was  depressed  by  the  tremendous  cold. 

It  knew  that  this  was  no  time  for  traveling. 
Incorrect:  The  pay  is  twelve  dollars  a  month  and  your 

rations  furnished,  you  camp  in  a  tent  on  the  prairie  with 

your  sheep. 
Correct:  The  pay  is  twelve  dollars  a  month  and  your  rations 

furnished.  You  camp  in  a  tent  on  the  prairie  with  your 

sheep. 

2.  Do  not  put  a  comma  between  a  noun  and  an  adjective 
modifying  it. 

Bad:  On  a  table  stood  a  large,  ugly,  red,  vase. 
Better:  On  a  table  stood  a  large,  ugly,  red  vase. 

3.  Do  not  use  a  comma  before  the  first  member  of  a 

series  unless  it  would  be  required  if  the  series  were  reduced 

to  one  member. 

Bad:  At  the  Institute  I  studied,  cooking,  dressmaking,  and 
millinery. 

Better:  At  the  Institute  I  studied  cooking,  dressmaking,  and 
millinery. 

The  Dash 

1.  The  dash  may  be  used  instead  of  marks  of  paren- 
thesis. 

For  inclosing  interpolated  material,  the  dash  is  slightly  less 
formal  than  parentheses. 

It  was  one  of  those  fine  rains  —  I  am  not  praising  it  — 
which  wet  you  to  the  skin  in  about  four  seconds. 

2.  The  dash  is  used  to  indicate  incoherence  or  the  sud- 
den breaking  off  of  a  sentence  form  that  has  been  begun. 

(a)  I  could  only  gasp,  "Six  o'clock  train  —  Green  Lodge  — 
white  horse  —  old  man  —  I  — " 


PUNCTUATION  17 

(b)  I  said  to  Sylvia  this  morning  —  why,  what  has  become 
of  Sylvia,  anyway? 

3.  The  dash,  with  or  without  the  comma,  may  be  used 
before  a  repetition  or  an  elaboration  of  a  thought  preced- 
ing it. 

There  were  noises  that  we  did  not  understand,  —  mysteri- 
ous winds  passing  overhead,  tree-trunks  grinding  against 
each  other,  undefinable  stirs  and  uneasinesses. 

4.  The  dash  may  be  used  before  a  word  that  sums  up 

what  has  preceded  in  the  sentence.  In  such  a  case,  the  dash 

is  usually  preceded  by  the  comma. 

The  hammering  of  the  infrequent  woodpecker,  the  call  of 
the  lonely  bird,  the  drumming  of  the  solitary  partridge, 
—  all  these  sounds  do  but  emphasize  the  lonesomeness  of 
nature.  C.  D.  Warner:  Camping  Out. 

5.  The  dash  may  be  used,  with  or  without  the  comma,  to 
indicate  a  slight  pause  for  emphasis. 

(a)  I  like  to  have  this  happen  on  an  inclement  Christmas  or 
Thanksgiving  Eve  —  and  it  always  does. 

(6)  "I  shall  be  proud  to  show  you  my  wife,"  he  said,  "and 
the  baby  —  and  Goliath."  T.  B.  Aldrich:  Goliath. 

6.  The  dash  sometimes  follows  the  colon,  after  very 

formal  introductory  material. 

Aided  by  Patience,  the  spirit  of  Progress  is  enabled  to  close 
the  dialogue  and  the  poem  thus:  — 

[Here  follow  a  few  stanzas  of  the  poem.] 

7.  The  dash  should  not  be  used  indiscriminately  instead 
of  other  marks  of  punctuation. 

Incorrect:  I  was  very  glad  to  hear  from  home  — I  had  begun 
to  get  low-spirited  at  not  receiving  any  news  —  and  to 
entertain  indefinite  fears  that  something  was  wrong  — 
You  do  not  say  anything  about  your  own  health  —  but  I 
hope  you  are  well. 

Correct:  I  was  very  glad  to  hear  from  home.  I  had  begun  to 
get  low-spirited  at  not  receiving  any  news,  and  to  enter- 


18  ESTABLISHED   USAGES 

tain  indefinite  fears  that  something  was  wrong.  You  do 
not  say  anything  about  your  own  health,  but  I  hope  you 
are  well. 

The  Apostrophe 

1 .  For  the  use  of  the  apostrophe  to  form  the  possessive 
of  singular  and  plural  nouns,  see  pages  43-45. 

2.  For  the  use  of  the  apostrophe  to  form  the  plural  of 
letters,  symbols,  and  words  spoken  of  as  words,  see  page 
43,  under  Plurals. 

3.  Below  are  given  a  few  cautions  to  be  observed  in  using 
the  apostrophe :  — 

(a)  Never  form  the  plural  of  a  noun  (except  a  word 

spoken  of  as  a  word;  see  page  43)  by  adding  an 

apostrophe,  or  an  apostrophe  with  s. 

Incorrect:  There  stood  all  the  little  Smith's  in  a  row. 

Correct:  There  stood  all  the  little  Smiths  in  a  row.  (See 
the  rule  for  the  plural  of  proper  nouns:  Rule  15, 
page  43.) 

(6)  Never  use  an  apostrophe  with  the  possessive  pro- 
nouns its,  ours,  hers,  yours,  theirs. 
Incorrect:  The  word  let  has  changed  it's  meaning. 
Correct:  The  word  let  has  changed  its  meaning. 

(c)  In  forming  the  possessive  of  a  noun  that  ends  in 
s,  never  insert  an  apostrophe  before  that  s. 
Incorrect:  He  read  Collin's  Ode  to  Evening. 

Correct:  He  read  Collins's  [or  Collins']  Ode  to  Evening. 

(d)  In  writing  the  contraction  of  a  word  (see  Rule  1, 
page  35),  be  sure  to  insert  the  apostrophe  at  the 
right  place. 

Incorrect:  I  could  'nt  reach  him  by  telephone. 
Correct:  I  could  n't  reach  him  by  telephone. 


PUNCTUATION  19 

Quotation  Marks 

1.  A  direct  quotation  should  be  inclosed  by    double 

quotation  marks. 

I  heard  him  say,  "You  had  better  go,  or  it  will  be  the  worse 
for  you." 

Note:  An  indirect  quotation  does  not  take  quotation 
marks. 

Incorrect:  I  heard  John  tell  the  tramp  "That  he  had  better 

go." 
Correct:  I  heard  John  tell  the  tramp  that  he  had  better  go. 

2.  A  single  continuous  speech  should  have  quotation 
marks  only  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end,  unless  it  is 
broken  by  the  author's  commentary.  When  the  speech  is 
thus  interrupted,  an  extra  set  of  quotation  marks  should 
be  introduced. 

Incorrect:  "  Yes,"  said  his  mother,  dolefully,  Johnny  's  been 

fighting  again."    "That  horrid  Barnabee  boy  (who  is 

eight  years  old,  if  he  is  a  day)  "won't  let  the  child  alone." 

"Well,  said  I,  I  hope  Johnny  gave  that  Barnabee  boy 

a  thrashing." 

"Did  n't  I  though?  cries  Johnny  from  the  sofa.  You 
bet." 

Correct:  "Yes,"  said  his  mother  dolefully,  "Johnny  'sbeen 
fighting  again.  That  horrid  Barnabee  boy  (who  is  eight 
years  old  if  he  is  a  day)  won't  let  the  child  alone." 

"Well,"  said  I,  "I  hope  Johnny  gave  that  Barnabee 
boy  a  thrashing." 

"Didn't  I,  though?"  cries  Johnny,  from  the  sofa. 
"You  bet!" 

3.  If  a  speech  is  so  long  that  it  extends  to  several  para- 
graphs, each  paragraph  should  have  a  quotation  mark  at 
the  beginning;  only  the  last  should  have  the  quotation 
mark  at  the  end. 

4.  When  a  quotation  mark  and  a  question  mark  or  an 
exclamation  point  come  after  the  same  word,  (a)  the  ques- 


20  ESTABLISHED  USAGES 

tion  mark  or  the  exclamation  point  should  come  first  if  it  is 
a  part  of  the  quotation,  but  not  of  the  main  sentence;  (6) 
the  question  mark  or  exclamation  point  should  come  last, 
if  it  applies  to  the  main  sentence,  and  not  to  the  mere 
quotation. 

Incorrect:  I  said,  "Are  you  going  away"? 
Correct:  I  said,  "Are  you  going  away?" 
Incorrect:  Did  he  actually  say,  "You  are  a  thief?" 
Correct:  Did  he  actually  say,  "You  are  a  thief"? 

5.  A  quotation  within  a  quotation  should  be  inclosed  by 
single  quotation  marks;  a  third  quotation,  within  the 
second,  should  be  inclosed  by  double  marks,  and  so  on,  in 
indefinite  alternation. 

I  have  often  heard  my  grandfather  say,  "You  can't  do 
better  than  to  take  the  advice  of  the  old  proverb,  'Early 
to  bed  and  early  to  rise.'" 

Incorrect:  "The  next  day,"  the  stranger  continued,  "my 
foreman  came  to  me  and  said,  "  If  you  don't  look  out,  you 
will  lose  your  job." 

Correct:  "The  next  day,"  the  stranger  continued,  "my  fore- 
man came  to  me  and  said,  'If  you  don't  look  out,  you 
will  lose  your  job.'" 

6.  It  is  sometimes  permissible  to  use  quotation  marks  to 
inclose  a  technical  term,  or  a  word  that  is  unusual  or  less 
dignified  than  the  rest  of  a  discourse.  This  rule  must  be 
applied  with  great  caution.   (See  Rule  7.) 

Permissible: 

(a)  The  street  gamin  looked  anxiously  about,  to  see  if  a 
"flatty"  [policeman]  were  in  sight. 

(6)  It  has  already  been  said  that  Irving  .  .  .  inaugu- 
rated a  distinctive  type  of  short  story,  the  short  story 
of  local  color.  This  has  been  called,  since  1870,  the 
"garden-patch"  type  of  story,  because  in  it  each 
writer  may  be  said  to  cultivate  his  own  garden,  or 
rather  his  own  "patch"  in  the  national  garden.  C. 
Alphonso  Smith:  The  American  Short  Story. 


PUNCTUATION  21 

7.  Quotation  marks  should  not  be  used  loosely  for 
apology  or  irony.  They  should  never  be  employed  without 
good  reason.  When  one  is  in  doubt  whether  to  use  quota- 
tion marks  for  any  purpose  except  the  reporting  of  dia- 
logue, he  is  usually  safe  in  omitting  them. 

Bad:  My  dog  "Toby"  followed  me  to  the  gate. 
Better:  My  dog  Toby  followed  me  to  the  gate. 
Bad:  I  hope  you  are  not  going  to  "go  back  on"  us. 
Better:  I  hope  you  are  not  going  to  go  back  on  us. 
Bad:  His  is  a  "noble"  soul  indeed! 
Better:  His  is  a  noble  soul  indeed! 

8.  Quotation  marks  should  not  be  used  to  inclose  the 
title  at  the  head  of  a  composition,  —  unless  the  title  is  in 
itself  a  quotation  not  easily  recognized.  Current  proverbs 
and  well-known  quotations  may  be  used  as  titles  without 
being  inclosed  by  quotation  marks. 

9.  Quotation  marks  may  be  used  to  inclose  titles  em- 
bedded in  any  sort  of  discourse;  however,  italics  are  com- 
monly used  for  this  purpose. 

Permissible:  Judged  by  the  strict  demands  of  structure, 
as  outlined  by  Poe,  both  "Rip  Van  Winkle"  and  "The 
Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow"  are  tales  rather  than  short 
stories. 

EXERCISE  IN  PUNCTUATING  CONVERSATION 

Why  as  for  being  honest  master  said  the  man  laughing  and 
sitting  down  beside  me  I  havent  much  to  say  many  is  the  wild 
thing  I  have  done  when  I  was  younger  however  what  is  done  is 
done  I  have  lived  long  enough  to  learn  the  grand  point  of  wisdom 
what  is  that  said  I  that  honesty  is  the  best  policy  master  you 
appear  to  be  a  sailor  said  I  looking  at  his  dress  I  was  not  bred  a 
sailor  said  the  man  though  when  my  foot  is  on  salt  water  I  can 
play  the  part  and  play  it  well  too  I  am  now  from  a  long  voyage 
from  America  I  asked  farther  than  that  said  the  man  have  you 
any  objection  to  telling  me  said  I  from  New  South  Wales  said  the 
man  looking  me  full  in  the  face  dear  me  said  I  why  do  you  say 


22  ESTABLISHED  USAGES 

dear  me  said  the  man  it  is  a  very  long  way  off  said  I  was  that 
your  reason  for  saying  so  said  the  man  not  exactly  said  I  no  said 
the  man  with  a  rather  bitter  smile  it  was  something  else  that  made 
you  say  so  you  were  thinking  of  the  convicts  well  said  I  what  then 
you  are  no  convict  how  do  you  know  you  do  not  look  like  one  thank 
you  master  said  the  man  cheerfully  to  a  certain  extent  you  are 
right  bygones  are  bygones  I  am  no  longer  what  I  was  the  truth 
however  is  the  truth  a  convict  I  have  been  a  convict  at  Sydney 
Cove. 

EXERCISE 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  I  think  Mr.  Morgan  that  the  man  you  were  speaking  of  is  now 
in  Las  Vegas  New  Mexico. 

2.  The  house  after  it  had  been  inspected  proved  to  be  less 
remarkable  than  we  had  been  led  to  suppose. 

3.  I  did  not  see  him  anywhere  and  Bill  refused  to  tell  me  what 
had  become  of  him. 

4.  The  narrow  dusty  white  road  lay  shining  in  the  moonlight. 

5.  In  San  Francisco  California  there  is  a  memorial  to  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson  the  celebrated  Scotch  novelist. 

6.  When  we  mounted  the  hill  our  long  shadows  stretched  up  its 
slope  before  us  as  if  eager  to  run  ahead  of  us  and  taste  the 
mystery  of  the  new  life  that  lay  beyond. 

7.  The  theater  the  church  the  school  and  the  home  are  all  edu- 
cational institutions. 

8.  He  swore  by  all  the  saints  in  the  calendar  of  Rouen  and  these 
are  many  that  he  would  not  forget  this  insult  that  he  would 
avenge  it  at  any  cost. 

9.  Presently  in  a  quiet  voice  he  said  to  the  servant  take  this  let- 
ter to  your  master  and  do  not  let  any  one  see  you  give  it  to 
him. 

10.  It  is  so  indeed  Richard  says  King  Philip  looking  rather 
foolish. 

11.  The  firm  mouth  the  finely  lined  nose  the  clear  questioning 
eyes  the  full  broad  forehead  all  speak  the  man  of  logical  mind 
of  an  unruffled  contemplative  nature. 

12.  An  iron  foundry  a  deserted  college  a  clock  factory  and  a  flour 
mill  to-day  stand  as  monuments  to  the  energy  of  the  "  boom" 
and  the  potent  influence  of  the  organized  scoffers. 

13.  He  is  not  eminently  that  is  to  say  not  saliently  selfish  not 


PUNCTUATION  23 

rancorous  not  obtrusive  but  dull  dull  as  a  woolen  nightcap 
over  eyes  and  ears  and  mouth. 

14.  A  witty  woman  is  a  treasure  a  witty  beauty  is  a  power. 

15.  The  gathering  darkness  with  its  few  large  liquid  stars  which  a 
moment  before  had  seemed  so  poetical  began  to  fill  me  with 
apprehension. 

16.  By  the  time  the  hawk  was  ready  to  fly  he  had  consumed 
twenty-one  chipmunks  fourteen  red  squirrels  sixteen  mice 
and  twelve  English  sparrows  besides  a  lot  of  butchers  meat. 

Parentheses 

1 .  Marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  interpolated 
material,  —  that  is,  material  thrown  into  a  sentence  or  a 
group  of  sentences  for  explanatory  purposes. 

The  book  proved  a  great  success,  passing  speedily  into 
many  libraries  (into  Gray's  among  others),  and  Andrew 
Millar  ultimately  purchased  the  copyright. 

Note:  The  comma  or  the  double  dashes  may  be  used  in 
the  same  way,  and  in  many  cases  are  to  be  preferred  to  paren- 
theses. 

2.  Parentheses  may  be  used  to  inclose  letters  of  the 
alphabet  numbering  a  series  of  rules,  examples,  or  the  like. 

For  an  illustration  of  this  point,  see  the  cautions  under  The 
Apostrophe,  page  18. 

3.  Parentheses  should  not  be  used  to  inclose  material 
that  is  not  properly  parenthetic,  —  that  is,  not  interpo- 
lated into  other  material  for  purposes  of  explanation. 

Bad:  I  said  (who)  and  not  (which). 

Correct:  I  said  who,  and  not  which. 

Bad:  He  was  criticized  for  his  incorrect  use  of  (guess). 

Correct:  He  was  criticized  for  his  incorrect  use  of  guess. 

Bad:  On  the  box  was  a  large  figure  (4) . 

Correct:  On  the  box  was  a  large  figure  4. 

Caution  :  Parentheses  should  never  be  used  to  indicate  the 
omission  of  incorrect  or  undesired  material. 


24  ESTABLISHED  USAGES 

Bad:  I  spoke  of  the  matter  to  Mr.  (Jones)  Evans. 
Better:  I  spoke  of  the  matter  to  Mr.  -Jonco  Evans. 
4.  Interpolated  material  inclosed  in  parentheses  should 
not  be  placed  before  the  expression  it  is  meant  to  explain. 
Bad:  I  am  inclosing  (10)  ten  dollars  in  cash. 
Better:  I  am  inclosing  ten  dollars  ($10)  in  cash. 

Square  Brackets 

1 .  Square  brackets  are  used  to  inclose  material  inserted 
in  a  quotation  and  representing  the  comment  of  some  one 
other  than  the  author  of  the  quotation  itself.  See  Rule  3, 
under  Quotations,  page  215. 

Not  long  after  they  reached  Ryde,  he  wrote  to  his  half- 
brother  and  successor  John  (afterward  Sir  John)  Field- 
ing: "I  beg  that  on  the  Day  you  receive  this,  Mrs. 
Daniel  [his  mother-in-law]  may  know  that  we  are  just 
risen  from  Breakfast  in  Health  and  Spirits  [the  italics  are 
ours]  this  twelfth  instant  at  9  in  the  morning."  Austin 
Dobson  :  Eighteenth  Century  Vignettes. 

2.  Square  brackets  are  sometimes  used    to   indicate 

material  inserted  by  an  editor  or  commentator  when  the 

text  under  consideration  is  illegible  or  otherwise  uncertain. 

I  could  not  find  any  man  for  whose  name  this  book  was 
more  agreable  for  hope  [of]  protection.  Roger  Ascham  : 
The  Schoolmaster,  ed.  by  Edward  Arber. 

3.  A  single  square  bracket  is  used  at  the  left  of  a  word  or 
words  set  above  the  end  of  a  line,  when  to  save  space  the 

extra  material  is  not  carried  over. 

[here, 
Poor,  shining  dove,  —  I  would  not  hold  thee 

The  Hyphen 

I .  When  a  word  is  broken  and  carried  over  from  the  end 
of  one  line  to  the  beginning  of  the  next,  a  hyphen  should 
indicate  the  transition. 


PUNCTUATION  25 

Note:  A  hyphen  should  never  be  used  at  the  beginning  of 
a  line. 

2.  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  use  of  the  hyphen  in  com- 
pound words,  but  any  good  dictionary  may  serve  as  a  guide. 
The  tendency  of  the  untrained  writer  is  to  hyphenate  too 
much;  hence  some  care  should  be  taken  to  modify  that 
tendency. 

Note:  To-day,  to-night,  and  to-morrow  are  usually  written 

with  the  hyphen. 

MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISE   IN   PUNCTUATION 

1.  It  was  hard  work  for  the  fish  was  a  large  one. 

2.  Children  have  you  ever  heard  of  Cinderella  the  beautiful  girl 
who  was  treated  unkindly  by  her  cruel  step-mother  and  who 
was  rescued  by  a  fairy  god-mother  and  a  prince. 

3.  Ethel  was  it  is  true  flighty  and  unreliable  but  her  aunt  liked 
her  and  hdr  cousin  found  her  extremely  amusing. 

4.  This  fact  and  I  can  truly  say  I  have  proved  that  it  is  a  fact 
interests  the  scientists  greatly. 

5.  He  settled  at  last  in  Helena  Montana  which  is  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  Last  Chance  Gulch. 

6.  I  was  going  to  tell  you  but  after  all  I  think  I  won't. 

7.  I  remember  a  sea-captain  once  saying  to  a  young  lady  who 
had  used  the  term  common  sailor  Madam  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  a  common  sailor  a  sailor  is  an  uncommon  man. 

8.  You  are  very  kind  very  kind  responded  Dr  Henderson  that 
would  indeed  be  delightful. 

9.  A  little  fat  red  hen  was  sitting  on  the  doorstep. 

10.  It  was  as  good  as  money  better  in  fact  because  money  could 
not  buy  food  in  that  place. 

11.  One  of  them  on  my  appearing  raised  her  tall  bony  figure  from 
her  chair  not  as  if  to  welcome  me  for  she  threw  me  no  more 
than  a  brief  glance  of  surprise  but  simply  to  set  about  prepar- 
ing the  meal  which  her  son's  absence  had  delayed. 

12.  She  directed  the  letter  to  Copenhagen  Denmark  in  care  of 
Mr.  Edward  Houghton  American  consul  for  that  city. 

13.  He  provided  the  tickets  for  his  mother  and  his  aunt  and  hia 
brother  paid  the  traveling  expenses  of  the  two  younger 
sisters. 


26  ESTABLISHED  USAGES 

14.  I  recorded  the  deed  at  the  county-seat  which  was  only  three 
miles  from  my  claim. 

15.  Tuition  fees  fall  term  $20.00  winter  term  $23.00  spring  term 
$23.00  see  pages  45  and  48  of  catalogue. 

16.  There  are  two  kinds  of  debating  oral  and  written. 

17.  He  went  to  Africa  to  shoot  lions  and  his  friends  did  not  hear 
from  him  for  more  than  a  year. 

18.  It  is  n't  very  early  now  Mary  she  said  I  was  up  hours  ago  and 
I  'm  terribly  hungry. 

19.  A  tame  crow  he  considered  would  be  an  ornament  to  his  vari- 
ous possessions  it  would  at  the  same  time  fill  all  his  friends 
with  envy. 

20.  And  indeed  the  matter  when  it  was  discussed  at  the  dinner- 
table  began  to  assume  proportions  of  which  he  had  never 
dreamed. 

21.  He  made  no  complaints  he  stated  the  simple  facts  he  was 
reticent  concerning  his  wife's  departure. 

22.  I  once  saw  a  tourist  party  hurried  through  the  Louvre  with 
an  impatient  cry  on  the  part  of  the  conductor  now  ladies  and 
gentlemen  you  have  nt  time  to  stop  and  look  at  anything 
just  walk  on  as  fast  as  you  can  this  gallery  is  an  eighth  of  a 
mile  long. 

23.  The  traveler  was  old  bent  and  gray-haired  his  clothes  were 
faded  and  worn  he  walked  feebly  helping  himself  with  a  stout 
staff. 

24.  Before  his  own  fire  he  puzzled  over  the  problem  something 
must  be  done  but  what 

25.  It  was  a  high  serene  night  with  a  growing  moon  and  a  scat- 
tered company  of  major  stars  and  if  no  choir  of  nightingales 
sang  there  was  at  least  a  very  active  whippoorwill. 

26.  If  I  do  go  around  the  world  said  Zora  a  little  while  later  when 
they  had  settled  on  which  side  of  South  America  Valparaiso 
was  situated  and  how  many  nice  and  clever  people  could  tell 
you  positively  off-hand  if  I  go  around  the  world  you  and 
Emmy  will  have  to  come  too. 

27.  The  antique  furniture  the  rich  dark  rugs  the  cheerful  open 
fires  the  masses  of  flowers  all  these  gave  the  house  an  air  of 
elegance  and  refinement. 

28.  There  was  only  one  thing  lacking  to  complete  his  satisfaction 
a  companion  to  whom  he  could  relate  the  story  of  his  won- 
derful discovery. 


PUNCTUATION  27 

29.  Skepsey  would  have  explained  but  the  case  was  over  and  he 
was  hustled  out. 

30.  He  was  much  admired  for  his  clever  wit  that  is  for  his  rude 
personal  remarks  that  passed  in  his  circle  for  wit. 

31.  After  all  said  Sypher  the  great  thing  is  to  have  a  purpose  in 
life  not  every  one  can  have  my  purpose  he  apologized  for  hu- 
manity but  they  can  have  some  guiding  principle  whats  yours 

32.  I  had  some  difficulty  with  the  janitor  and  the  landlord  sug- 
gested that  I  find  another  apartment. 

33.  I  am  going  to  buy  a  house  in  the  country  that  is  to  say  I  am 
going  to  if  I  can  get  the  money. 

34.  Please  send  me  the  following  articles  a  spade  a  watering-pot 
a  trowel  a  rake  and  a  lawn-mower. 

35.  It  has  always  seemed  to  me  Mr.  Chairman  that  the  persons 
who  have  charge  of  this  matter  should  be  more  explicit  in 
their  account  of  their  proceedings  nevertheless  I  am  willing  to 
accept  their  spoken  word  with  regard  to  the  subject  of  ex- 
penditures. 

36.  Mr.  Milwick  the  proprietor  of  the  shop  stood  glaring  apo- 
plectically  at  his  neighbor  Dr  Galloway. 

37.  This  strange  personage  had  just  arrived  from  Hong  Kong 
China  his  costume  was  unique  his  manners  were  atrocious  and 
his  conversation  was  appalling  in  its  unnecessary  frankness. 

38.  The  order  did  not  reach  him  till  late  in  the  week  hence  it 
remained  unfilled. 

39.  He  answered  angrily  no  I  did  nt  forget  but  its  as  dark  as 
Egypt  outdoors  if  theres  a  moon  we  might  go  to-morrow  she 
did  not  reply  directly  but  muttered  something  that  sounded 
like  poor  excuses. 

40.  Robbins  who  was  an  expert  tool-maker  found  employment  at 
once  but  his  friend  Bardwell  did  not  succeed  in  getting  any 
sort  of  work. 

41.  While  I  was  sitting  there  a  limp  bedraggled  white  man  ap- 
peared from  behind  the  hedge  and  shouted  some  unintelligible 
words  at  the  negro. 

42.  The  farmer  regarded  all  unexplained  wayfarers  with  suspi- 
cion therefore  he  was  not  particularly  cordial  when  the  two 
boys  appeared  at  his  door. 

43.  I  have  been  told  although  I  am  loath  to  believe  the  assertion 
that  two  of  his  personal  friends  were  victims  of  his  dishonesty 
and  avarice. 


28  ESTABLISHED  USAGES 

44.  Carlyle  declined  to  work  in  the  same  room  with  any  one  else 
and  he  therefore  deliberately  gave  up  the  idea  of  using  the 
accessible  material  that  lay  at  his  disposal  in  other  words  he 
did  not  show  the  greatest  possible  diligence  in  studying  all 
accessible  material  and  avoided  the  vast  mass  of  information 
on  his  subject  which  existed  in  the  library  of  the  British 
Museum  because  his  request  for  personal  privacy  could  not 
be  granted. 

45.  I  got  my  opera-glasses  and  read  and  pleasant  reading  it  was 
the  following  inscription. 

46.  I  had  arranged  that  the  girl  Jenny  who  was  wearing  an  out- 
rageous bonnet  should  accompany  us  as  far  as  the  station. 

47.  He  was  in  the  news-room  and  having  questioned  him  about 
the  saddle  I  said  by  the  way  what  is  this  story  about  your 
swearing  at  one  of  the  waiters. 

48.  I  had  to  repeat  sardine  on  toast  twice  and  instead  of  answer- 
ing yes  sir  as  if  my  selection  of  sardine  on  toast  was  a  personal 
gratification  to  him  which  is  the  manner  that  one  expects  of  a 
waiter  he  glanced  at  the  clock  then  out  of  the  window  and 
starting  asked  did  you  say  sardine  on  toast  sir. 

49.  Shot  cried  the  colonel  angrily  by  heaven  if  I  thought  there 
was  a  villain  on  earth  capable  of  shooting  that  poor  inof- 
fensive dog  Id  why  should  they  shoot  him  Lillian. 

50.  There  was  Riggss  bill  for  hay  that  was  seven  dollars. 

51.  The  great  literary  and  philosophical  book  to  which  I  allude  a 
book  which  deserves  to  hold  a  permanent  place  in  English 
literature  and  which  has  profoundly  influenced  the  minds  of 
political  writers  but  which  infringes  all  the  canons  laid  down 
by  the  modern  scientific  historian  is  the  famous  work  that 
Thomas  Carlyle  entitled  The  French  Revolution  A  History. 

52.  She  gave  him  a  list  of  the  materials  that  she  wanted  twelve 
yards  of  silk  two  yards  of  chiffon  five  yards  of  lace  a  vast 
number  of  hooks  and  eyes  spools  of  thread  and  the  like  he 
was  appalled  I  can  never  suit  you  Im  sure  he  groaned  de- 
spondently. 

53.  But  my  good  sir  you  quote  me  your  English  Latin  I  must  beg 
of  you  to  write  it  down  it  is  orally  incomprehensible  to  us 
Continentals. 

54.  It  is  and  I  said  not  or. 

55.  His  health  was  now  firmly  established  he  had  a  commanding 
physique  his  figure  was  tall  and  muscular  and  his  bearing 


PUNCTUATION  29 

full  of  a  dignity  which  had  a  touch  almost  of  haughtiness 
in  it. 

56.  Scarce  a  man  heard  the  report  of  the  long  slim  gun  so  intent 
were  all  in  watching  the  flight  of  its  five-pound  missile  which 
however  showed  from  its  curve  before  it  vanished  in  the  dis- 
tance that  it  was  soaring  wide  of  its  swiftly  moving  mark. 

57.  The  Fearless  was  now  speeding  ahead  at  the  rate  of  forty 
knots  an  hour  while  the  monoplane  after  making  two  wide 
circles  to  gain  height  was  flying  a  half-mile  to  starboard  some- 
what in  advance  of  the  war-ship  and  rapidly  distancing  her. 

58.  It  is  high  time  that  authors  should  take  heed  what  company 
they  keep  the  trouble  is  they  all  want  to  be  in  society  over- 
whelmed with  invitations  from  the  publishers  well  known  and 
talked  about  at  the  clubs  named  every  day  in  the  newspapers 
photographed  for  the  news-stalls  and  it  is  so  hard  to  distin- 
guish between  fashion  and  form  costume  and  substance  con- 
vention and  truth  the  things  that  show  well  and  the  things 
that  last  well  so  hard  to  draw  away  from  the  writers  that  are 
new  and  talked  about  and  to  note  those  who  are  old  and  walk 
apart  to  distinguish  the  tones  which  are  merely  loud  from  the 
tones  that  are  genuine  to  get  far  enough  away  from  the  press 
and  the  hubbub  to  see  and  judge  the  movements  of  the 
crowd. 

59.  Alas  lady  he  replied  in  a  tone  no  longer  wild  but  sad  as  a 
funeral  bell  we  must  meet  shortly  when  your  face  may 
wear  another  aspect. 

60.  Away  answered  Hutchinson  fiercely  though  yonder  senseless 
picture  cried  Forbear  it  should  not  move  me. 

REFERENCES 

Brewster,  W.  T.  English  Composition  and  Style,  pp.  479-84. 

Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Composition,  pp.  36-54. 

Herrick  and  Damon.  New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools,  pp. 

168-99. 
Hill,  A.  S.   Beginnings  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  pp.  23-34. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.   Enlarged  Practice-Book  of  English  Composition, 

pp.  260-82. 
Linn,  J.  W.   The  Essentials  of  English  Composition,  pp.  102-08. 
Lockwood,  S.  E.  H.   Lessons  in  English,  pp.  222-56. 
Newcomer  and  Seward.   Rhetoric  in  Practice,  pp.  165-81. 
Shaw,  E.  R.  English  Composition  by  Practice,  pp.  1-28. 


30  ESTABLISHED  USAGES 

Stebbins,  C.  M.  A  Progressive  Course  in  English,  pp.  382-90. 
Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  424-54. 
Waddy,  Virginia.   Elements  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  375- 

410. 
Williams,  William.  Composition  and  Rhetoric  by  Practice,  pp.  20-37. 
Woolley,  E.  C.  Mechanics  of  Writing,  pp.  93-205. 

2.   CAPITALS 

1.  The  first  word  of  a  complete  sentence  should  begin 
with  a  capital. 

This  rule  applies  to  quoted  sentences  as  well  as  to  those  not 
quoted. 

(a)  The  time  for  action  has  now  come. 

(6)  He  shouted,  "The  time  for  action  has  now  come." 

Caution  1 :  A  fragmentary  quotation  introduced  into  an 
original  sentence  does  not  need  the  initial  capital. 

She  made  it  clear  that  she  hoped  I  would  "do  mamma  jus- 
tice." Henry  James:  Greville  Fane. 

Caution  2:  A  clause  following  a  semicolon  should  not  be 
capitalized. 

It's  not  a  personal  feeling  on  my  part;  my  advice  is  that  of  a 
disinterested  friend. 

2.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry  should  begin 

with  a  capital. 

Tiger,  Tiger,  burning  bright 
In  the  forests  of  the  night, 
What  immortal  hand  or  eye 
Could  frame  thy  fearful  symmetry? 

William  Blake:  The  Tiger. 

3.  A  proper  noun  should  begin  with  a  capital. 
Under  this  rule  are  included :  — 

(a)  Names,  titles,  and  epithets  of  persons. 

The  hitherto  obscure  Simpkins  was  loudly  pro- 
claimed the  Man  of  the  Hour. 

(6)  Names  of  particular  places. 

I  spent  the  day  in  White  Sulphur  Springs. 


CAPITALS  31 

(c)  Names  of  the  months  and  of  the  days  of  the 

week. 

During  November  she  will  be  at  home  on  Tuesday 
and  Friday  afternoons. 

(d)  Names  of  specific  holidays  and  festivals. 

1.  He  gave  addresses  on  Memorial  Day  and  the 
Fourth  of  July. 

2.  They  attended  church  services  on  Ash  Wednes- 
day and  Good  Friday. 

(c)  Names  of  races  and  tribes. 

His  comrades  were  Slavonian  hunters  and  Russian 
adventurers,  Mongols  and  Tartars  and  Siberian 
aborigines.  Jack  London:  Lost  Face. 

(J)  Names  used  to  personify  abstract  ideas  and 
qualities. 
I  am  an  apostle  of  Nature. 

4.  Most  adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns  should  be 

capitalized. 

The  progress  of  French  art;  the  observance  of  the  Jewish 
Sabbath;  the  flavor  of  Turkish  coffee;  the  strength  of  the 
Doric  column. 

Note:  A  few  adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns  begin 
with  the  small  letter;  in  such  cases  the  origin  is  ignored  or  for- 
gotten. 

(a)  We  have  macadamized  roads. 

(b)  They  thought  his  ideas  quixotic,  and  his  great  schemes 
merely  Utopian. 

5.  The  name  of  a  political,  religious,  or  social  organiza- 
tion should  begin  with  a  capital;  in  general,  each  important 
word  included  in  such  a  name  should  be  capitalized. 

an  appeal  to  the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to 
Children;  a  member  of  the  Church  of  England;  the  vic- 
tory of  the  Democratic  party;  a  meeting  of  the  Associa- 
tion of  Collegiate  Alumni. 


32  ESTABLISHED  USAGES 

6.  The  names  of  specific  governing  bodies  and  the  titles 

of  government  officials  of  high  rank  should  be  capitalized. 

the  members  of  the  Reichstag;  the  powers  of  Congress;  a 
consultation  with  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

Conversely,  the  names  of  officers  of  inferior  rank  are  not 
usually  capitalized. 

He  called  upon  the  constable  of  the  village. 

7.  The  names  of  historical  events  and  periods  of  great 

general  significance  should  be  capitalized.    Usage  must 

decide  the  application  of  this  rule. 

the  state  of  learning  in  the  Middle  Ages;  the  Charge  of  the 
Light  Brigade;  the  Wars  of  the  Roses;  the  immediate 
results  of  the  Norman  Conquest. 

8.  Names,  titles,  and  pronouns  applied  to  the  Deity 

should  usually  be  capitalized. 

the  story  of  the  Carpenter's  Son;  an  all-wise  Providence; 
the  ancient  conception  of  Jehovah;  the  protection  of 
Heaven. 

9.  Names  for  the  Bible  and  other  sacred  books  should  be 

capitalized. 

the  teaching  of  Holy  Writ;  the  language  of  the  Vedas; 
translations  of  the  Avestas  and  the  Upanishads. 

10.  The  important  words  of  titles  in  literature  and  art 

should  be  capitalized. 

There  is  no  absolute  rule  for  deciding  which  are  the  most 
important  words  in  titles,  but  it  is  safe  to  capitalize  all  nouns, 
and  such  verbs,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  as  appear  especially 
significant. 

An  Enemy  to  the  People;  The  Girl  of  the  Golden  West;  The 
Man  Who  Would  be  King;  Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd. 

11.  The  pronoun  I  and  the  vocative  interjection  0  are 
written  as  capitals. 

I  mean  to  have  a  moral  garden  .  .  .  one  that  shall  teach, 
O  my  brothers!  0  my  sisters!  the  great  lessons  of  life. 
C.  D.  Warner:  My  Summer  in  a  Garden. 


ITALICS  33 

12.  Cautions: 

(a)  The  names  of  the  seasons  —  spring,  summer,  etc. 
—  should  not  be  capitalized  unless  they  are  dis- 
tinctly personified. 

Last  spring  I  went  to  visit  my  aunt  in  California. 

(b)  The  names  of  the  points  of  the  compass  —  north, 

south,   etc.  —  should  not  be  capitalized  unless 

they  are  used  to  indicate  sections  of  territory. 

the  political  tendencies  of  the  South;  two  miles 
north  of  the  boundary  line;  a  trip  through  the  Mid- 
dle West;  a  wind  from  the  east;  our  commercial 
relations  with  the  Far  East. 

(c)  The  words  school,  church,  street,  and  river  should 
not  be  capitalized  unless  they  form  parts  of 
proper  names. 

the  high  schools  in  Illinois;  the  academic  standards 
of  the  Jefferson  High  School;  a  well-kept  street; 
a  tenement  house  in  Rivington  Street;  the  depth  of 
the  river;  a  stream  called  Crystal  River. 

(<2)  No  word  should  be  capitalized  without  good 
reason. 

a  contest  between  the  juniors  and  the  seniors;  the 
benefits  of  studying  geography,  botany,  and  Ger- 
man. 

3.   ITALICS 

In  manuscript,  italic  type  is  represented  by  a  horizontal 
line  drawn  under  the  letter  or  the  word  to  be  distinguished. 

I.  Words  from  a  foreign  language,  if  they  have  not  been 
anglicized,  should  be  printed  in  italics. 

(a)  He  was  playing  the  part  of  a  deus  ex  machina. 

(b)  The  piece  was  a  clumsy  rechauffe. 

If  one  is  in  doubt  whether  a  word  has  been  adopted  into 
English,  one  is  safe  in  italicizing. 


34  ESTABLISHED   USAGES 

2.  The  names  of  ships  and  boats  should  be  italicized, 
(a)  They  sailed  on  the  Lusitania. 

(Jb)  I  named  my  canoe  the  Water  Sprite. 

3.  Titles  of  literary  and  artistic  productions,  when  in- 
cluded in  the  body  of  a  discourse,  should  be  italicized. 

Quotation  marks  are  sometimes  used  to  set  off  titles,  but 
italics  appear  to  be  gaining  in  favor. 

(a)  I  have  been  reading  The  Glory  of  Clementina. 

(b)  She  sang  The  Last  Rose  of  Summer. 

(c)  Wharton  knew  that  the  editor  of  the  Farmer's  Friend 
would  be  glad  to  print  the  article. 

Note  :  (a)  When  a  title  begins  with  an  article  —  a,  an,  or 
the  —  the  article  should  be  italicized  with  the  rest  of  the  title. 

They  bought  Celia  Thaxter's  An  Island  Garden. 

(b)  The  word  the  preceding  the  name  of  a  newspaper  or  any 
other  periodical  should  not  be  italicized. 

He  was  reading  the  Saturday  Evening  Post. 

4.  A  word  which  is  the  subject  of   discussion  in  any 

given  context,  or  to  which  attention  is  to  be  called  because 

of  its  interest  as  an  unusual  or  newly  coined  word,  should 

be  italicized. 

Quotation  marks  may  also  be  used  for  this  purpose;  see 
page  20. 

(a)  The  word  swell  as  an  adjective  should  be  avoided. 

(b)  Complected  is  a  corruption  of  complexioned. 

(c)  Between  breakfast  and  luncheon  we  have  a  meal  that 
we  call  brunch. 

5.  Scientific  (usually  Latin)  names  of  genera  and  species 
are,  in  general,  to  be  italicized. 

We  found  that  the  Amelanchier  canadensis  grew  plentifully 
on  the  banks  of  the  lake. 

6.  A  word  or  a  phrase  needing  particular  emphasis  may 
be  italicized. 


ABBREVIATIONS  35 

Great  caution  should  be  observed  in  the  application  of  this 
rule.  One  should  never  italicize  a  word  without  good  reason. 

(a)  The  public  mind!  —  as  if  the  public  had  a  mind,  or  any 
principle  of  perception  more  discoverable  than  the 
stare  of  huddled  sheep!  Henry  James:  Sir  Dominick 
Ferrand. 

(b)  But  what  induced  the  dear  lady  to  take  him  is  the  ques- 
tion we're  all  of  us  asking.  George  Meredith:  Diana 
of  the  Crossways. 

4.  ABBREVIATIONS 

1 .  An  abbreviation  of  a  word  is  followed  by  a  period. 

It  should  be  noted  that  a  contraction  —  the  leaving  out  of  a 
letter  or  letters  in  the  interior  of  the  word  —  is  not  followed  by 
a  period.  The  omission  is  indicated  by  an  apostrophe. 

2.  Abbreviations  should  not  be  used  in  literary  dis- 
course. 

Bad:  I  had  not  walked  more  than  a  few  yds.  from  the  spot 
before  I  met  Capt.  Seymour  and  an  army  M.D. 

Better:  I  had  not  walked  more  than  a  few  yards  from  the 
spot  before  I  met  Captain  Seymour  and  an  army  doctor. 

Exceptions:  A  few  abbreviations  are  commonly  permitted 
in  any  literary  discourse.  Those  most  frequently  used  are:  — 

Mr.;  Mrs.;  Dr.  (prefixed  to  a  name);  i.e.;  e.g.;  viz.;  A.D.; 
B.C.;  M.  (Monsieur);  A.M.;  P.M. 

3.  Etc.  is  meaningless  and  inharmonious  in  literary  dis- 
course; it  should  be  used  only  in  legal  documents  and  busi- 
ness forms. 

Bad:  The  air  was  heavy  with  the  perfume  of  roses,  violets, 
carnations,  etc. 

Better:  The  air  was  heavy  with  the  perfume  of  roses, 
violets,  carnations,  and  other  hothouse  flowers. 

4.  In  addressing  letters,  one  should  ordinarily  write  out 
the  titles  prefixed  to  a  name ;  titles  and  degrees  following  a 
name  may  be  abbreviated. 


36 


ESTABLISHED  USAGES 


Mr.  and  Mrs.  are  always  abbreviated,  as  noted  above. 
Messrs.,  Dr.,  and  Hon.  are  permitted  when  prefixed  to  names. 
The  following  addresses  are  bad:  — 

Rev.  Albert  Hutchinson;  Col.  Faversham;  Att'y  L.  R. 
Bernard;  Pres.  Jas.  M.  Field. 

When  properly  altered,  these  addresses  become:  — 

The  Reverend  Albert  Hutchinson;  Colonel  Faversham; 

Mr.  L.  R.  Bernard,  Attorney  at  Law;  President  James 

M.  Field. 

Caution:  The  title  Miss  should  not  be  written  with  a 
period. 

5.  When  in  doubt  as  to  whether  to  abbreviate,  write  out 
words  and  expressions  in  full. 


A  LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS  IN  COMMON  USE 


A.B.  (Artium  Baccalaureus),  Bache- 
lor of  Arts. 

A.D.  (Anno  Domini),  In  the  year  of 
our  Lord. 

Ad  lib.  (Ad  libitum),  At  pleasure. 

M.,  Mt.  (JEtatis),  Of  [a  certain]  age. 

A.M.  (Artium  Magister),  Master  of 
Arts. 

A.M.  (Ante  Meridiem),  Before 
noon. 

Anon.,  Anonymous,  without  a 
name. 

A.R.A.,  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy. 

A  S,  A-S,  A.-S.,  A.S.,  Anglo-Saxon. 

Bart.,  Baronet. 

B.L.,  Bachelor  of  Laws. 

B.Mus.,  Bachelor  of  Music. 

B.S.  (Baccalaureus  Sciential),  Bach- 
elor of  Science. 

Caps.,  Capitals. 

Cf.  (Confer),  Compare. 

C.O.D.,  Cash  on  delivery. 

Cp.,  compare. 

d.  (denarius,  or  denarii),  Penny  or 
pence. 

D.D.  (Divinitalis  Doctor),  Doctor 
of  Divinity. 

D.D.S.,  Doctor  of  Dental  Surgery. 


Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Grand  Army  of  the  Repub- 

,  His  [or  her]  Royal  High- 


D.Lit.,  Doctor  of  Literature. 

Do.,  Ditto,  the  same. 

Ed.,  Editor  or  edition. 

e.g.  (exempli  gratia),  For  example. 

Esq.,  Esquire. 

et  al.  (et  alii),  And  others. 

etc.  (et  ccetera),  And  so  forth. 

et  seq.  (et  sequentes),  And  follow- 
ing. 

F.R.S. 

G.A.R., 
lie. 

H.R.H. 
ness. 

lb.,  ib.,  Ibid.,  ibid.  (Ibidem),  In  the 
same  place. 

Id.,  id.  (Idem),  The  same. 

I.e.,  i.e.  (Id  est),  That  is. 

Inst.  (Instant),  This  month. 

J.D.    (Jurum    Doctor),    Doctor    of 
Laws. 

Lit.D.,  Litt.D.,   Doctor  of  Litera- 
ture. 

LL.D.   (Legum  Doctor),  Doctor  of 
Laws. 

M.  (Mille),  Thousand. 

M.,  Monsieur. 

M.,  Meridian  or  noon. 

M.A.  [see  A.M.],  Master  of  Arts. 


THE   REPRESENTATION   OF  NUMBER 


37 


M.D.  (Medicines  Doctor),  Doctor  of 
Medicine. 

Mdlle.,  Mile.,  Mademoiselle. 

Messrs.,  MM.,  Messieurs,  gentle- 
men. 

Mmes.,  Mesdames,  ladies. 

MS.,  Manuscript.  MSS.,  Manu- 
scripts. 

Per  cent,  (per  centum) ,  By  the  hun- 
dred. 

Ph.B.  (Philosophies  Baccalaureus) , 
Bachelor  of  Philosophy. 

Ph.D.  (Philosophice  Doctor),  Doctor 
of  Philosophy. 

P.M.  (Post  Meridiem),  After  noon. 

P.M..  Postmaster. 


P.P.C.,  p.p.c.  (Pour  prendre  congi), 
To  say  good-bye. 

Pro  tem.  (Pro  tempore),  For  the 
time  being. 

Prox.  (Proximo),  Next  month. 

Q.v.  (Quod  vide),  Which  see. 

R.S.V.P.  (Repondez,  s'il  vous  platt). 
Answer  if  you  please. 

Sc.  (Silicet) ,  To  wit,  namely. 

Sc.B.,  Bachelor  of  Science. 

S.J.,  Society  of  Jesus. 

S.P.C.C,  Society  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  Cruelty  to  Children. 

Ult.  (Ultimo),  Last  month. 

Vid.,  vide,  See. 

Viz:  or  viz.  (Videlicet),  Namely. 


5.   THE   REPRESENTATION   OF   NUMBER 

1.  In  literary  discourse,  as  well  as  in  commercial  and 
technical  writing,  it  is  customary  to  use  figures  for  dates, 
and  for  the  street  numbers  in  addresses. 

(a)  On  July  12, 1896,  he  was  living  at  Number  249  Fairview 
Avenue. 

(6)  They  stayed  in  Belgium  from  October  18,  1904,  to 
January  27,  1905. 

(c)  She  lives  at  142  Everett  Street. 

Note:  (a)  It  is  permissible  to  spell  out  the  day  of  the 
month;  thus,  one  may  write  May  4,  or  May  fourth,  or  the  fourth 
of  May.  (b)  When  streets  are  designated  by  numbers  instead 
of  names,  it  is  in  good  form  to  write  out  the  numbers  below  one 
hundred;  thus,  Forty-second  Street;  Ninety-third  Street;  248th 
Street. 

2.  The  paging  of  books,  and  the  designation  of  files, 
records,  and  other  formal  arrangements  of  data  are  usually 
indicated  by  figures. 

(a)  It  is  on  page  562  of  this  volume. 

(6)  I  have  read  chapter  28  and  found  no  errors  in  it. 

(c)  He  looked  in  File  742. 

(d)  That  book  was  on  shelf  44  in  the  reading-room. 


38  ESTABLISHED  USAGES 

3.  A  series  of  statistical  data  should  be  represented  by 
figures. 

4.  In  ordinary  prose  discourse,  numbers  should  be  writ- 
ten out  if  they  can  be  expressed  in  a  few  words;  they  should 
be  represented  by  figures  if  they  require  three  words  or 
more. 

(a)  There  are  seventeen  students  in  the  room. 

(b)  He  fell  heir  to  thirty  thousand  dollars. 

(c)  One  million  square  miles  of  territory  were  ceded. 

(d)  Our  University  has  4246  students. 

(e)  The  exact  number  of  persons  present  was  3288. 

(J)  The  region  flooded  comprised  1,241,000  square  miles. 

Note  :  Some  discrimination  must  be  exercised  in  the  appli- 
cation of  this  rule;  the  student  should  make  a  study  of  the  best 
usage. 

5.  In  ordinary  prose  discourse,  sums  of  money  under  a 
dollar  are  written  out  in  words.  Sums  over  a  dollar  may  be 
written  out  if  they  can  be  represented  in  a  few  words;  other- 
wise they  may  be  given  in  figures.   (See  Rule  4.) 

(a)  He  paid  me  only  sixty  cents. 
(6)  I  gave  him  fifty-two  dollars. 

(c)  The  company  owed  eighteen  hundred  dollars. 

(d)  He  said  that  $618.35  was  the  entire  cost  of  the  garage. 

(e)  I  found  that  SI 5,242.72  was  the  amount  expended 
during  the  year. 

Note  :  When  a  number  has  been  spelled  out,  it  should  not 
be  repeated  in  parentheses  except  in  very  formal  legal  and 
commercial  papers. 

6.  The  time  of  day  should  be  written  out  in  words, 
(a)  You  had  better  go  at  twenty  minutes  of  five. 

(6)  Dinner  will  be  served  at  half  after  [or  half  past]  eight. 

(c)  The  bell  rings  at  a  quarter  of  one. 

Note:  In  discourse  not  of  a  strictly  literary  nature,  the 
expressions  9.30,  5.15,  6.00  are  permitted;  they  are  usually 


SYLLABIFICATION  39 

followed  by  the  abbreviation  a.m.  or  p.m.   In  general,  it  is  in 
better  form  to  use  words  for  representing  time. 

7.  Ages  should  be  written  out  in  words, 
(a)  She  is  four  years  old  to-day. 

(6)  His  age  was  sixty-five  years  and  three  months, 
(c)  He  was  a  month  less  than  ninety  years  old. 

8.  Figures  should  not  be  used  at  the  beginning  of  a 
sentence. 

If  the  number  to  be  expressed  cannot  be  written  out  in 
words,  the  sentence  must  be  reconstructed  so  that  the  figures  do 
not  come  at  the  beginning. 

Bad:  4568  pairs  of  shoes  were  sold. 

Better:  They  sold  4568  pairs  of  shoes. 

6.   SYLLABIFICATION 

1.  A  word  that  comes  at  the  end  of  a  line  on  either  a 
written  or  a  printed  page  should  not  be  broken  and  car- 
ried over  to  the  next  line  unless  such  division  is  imperative. 
Some  care  should  be  taken  with  spacing  so  that  hyphenat- 
ing does  not  become  frequent  enough  to  impair  the  unity  of 
the  page. 

2.  A  monosyllable  should  never  be  broken,  even  though 
it  be  very  long. 

3.  Proper  nouns,  especially  the  names  of  persons,  should 
ordinarily  not  be  divided. 

4.  Hyphenated  words  should  be  divided  only  at  the 
hyphen. 

5.  A  word  that  is  to  be  broken  at  the  end  of  a  line  should 
be  divided  only  between  syllables.  There  are  very  few 
hard-and-fast  rules  for  grouping  letters  into  syllables;  but 
with  a  little  study  one  can  acquire  the  habit  of  judging 
fairly  accurately  as  to  where  a  word  should  be  divided. 

The  following  suggestions  for  syllabification  may  be 
noted:  — 


40  ESTABLISHED   USAGES 

(a)  Prefixes  and  suffixes  are  usually  considered  as 
separate  syllables. 

dis-mount;  be-lie;  sing-ing;  brown-ish. 

(b)  Double  consonants  are  usually  divided.  This  rule 
takes  precedence  of  that  just  given. 

slip-ping;  col-lar;  af -fable;  permis-sion;  corol-lary. 

(c)  Two  consonants  separately  pronounced  belong  in 
separate  syllables. 

pic-ture;  chil-dren;  hun-dred;  pam-phlet;  ear-nest. 

(d)  When  a  short  vowel  is  followed  by  a  single  con- 
sonant or  a  digraph,  as  ph,  the  consonant  is  in- 
cluded in  the  syllable  with  the  vowel;  but  when 
the  sound  of  the  consonant  would  be  misrepre- 
sented by  inclusion  in  the  earlier  syllable,  the 
consonant  goes  into  the  next  syllable. 

diph-thong;    sep-arate;    ne-cessary;    ma-gic;    lo-gic, 
pre-judice. 

(e)  Long  vowels  and  unaccented  short  ones  usually 
close    a   syllable   without   the    consonants   that 
follow, 
pa-triot;  me-dium;  igno-rant;  exami-nation ;  pe-culiar. 

7.   RULES  FOR  PLURALS 

1.  Most  nouns  add  s  or  es  to  form  the  plural. 

The  use  of  s  or  es  depends  upon  the  sound  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  word;  es  is  added  if  the  word  ends  in  the  sound  of  sh,  x, 
j,  s,  z,  or  ch  as  in  church. 

cups;  papers;  maps;  rings;  foxes;  brushes;  hisses;  buzzes. 

2.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  change 
the  y  to  i  and  add  es  to  form  the  plural. 

lady,  ladies;  mercy,  mercies;  fancy,  fancies. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  add  s  to  form 
the  plural. 

key,  keys;  valley,  valleys;  attorney,  attorneys. 


RULES   FOR   PLURALS 


41 


4.  Some  nouns  ending  in/ or/e  change  the/  or  fe  to  v  and 
add  es  to  form  the  plural. 

thief,  thieves;  half,  halves;  shelf,  shelves;  knife,  knives. 

5.  A  small  number  of  nouns  ending  in  0  add  es  to  form  the 

plural. 

There  is  no  way  of  knowing  these  nouns  except  through 
sheer  effort  of  memory.  Below  are  the  most  common :  — 
Buffalo;  calico;  cargo;  domino  (a  counter  in  a  game) ;  echo; 
flamingo;  hero;  manifesto;  mosquito;  motto:  mulatto; 
negro;  potato;  tomato;  tornado;  volcano. 

6.  Some  nouns  have  plurals  ending  in  en. 

Such  nouns  have  preserved  their  Early  English  spelling. 
Below  are  the  most  common:  — 

ox,  oxen;  child,  children;  brother,  brethren. 

7.  A  few  nouns  form  the  plural  by  internal  change. 
Such  nouns  retain  their  Early  English  forms. 

man,  men;  foot,  feet;  goose,  geese;  tooth,  teeth;  mouse, 
mice;  woman,  women. 

8.  Some  nouns  adopted  from  foreign  languages  retain 

their  original  plurals. 

Some  of  these  nouns  have  acquired  regular  (English) 
plural  forms;  but  usage  only  can  decide  which  plural  is  the  bet- 
ter. Below  is  a  list  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  French  nouns  which 
retain  their  foreign  plurals :  — 


alumna 

alumnae 

ellipsis 

ellipses 

alumnus 

alumni 

erratum 

errata 

amanuensis 

amanuenses 

genus 

genera 

analysis 

analyses 

hypothesis 

hypotheses 

antithesis 

antitheses 

larva 

larvse 

apex 

apices 

medium 

media 

appendix 

appendices 

memorandum 

memoranda 

automaton 

automata 

miasma 

miasmata 

axis 

axes 

nebula 

nebula? 

basis 

bases 

phenomenon 

phenomena 

beau 

beaux 

radius 

radii 

crisis 

crises 

stratum 

strata 

criterion 

criteria 

tableau 

tableaux 

datum 

data 

thesis 

theses 

dictum 

dicta 

vertex 

vertices 

effluvium 

effluvia 

vortex 

vortices 

42  ESTABLISHED   USAGES 

Note:  Since  the  English  words  Mr.  and  Mrs.  have  no 
plurals,  the  French  plurals  have  been  borrowed;  they  are 
usually  written  in  the  abbreviated  form,  Messrs.  (Messieurs) 
and  Mmes.  (Mesdames). 

9.  Some  nouns  that  are  plural  in  form  are  used  in  the 
singular. 

means;  news;  amends;  odds;  tidings;  wages;  summons; 
gallows. 

Note:  Several  of  these  words  are  sometimes  used  in  the 
plural ;  as,  means,  wages,  and  odds. 

10.  Some  nouns  naming  articles  found  in  pairs  or  con- 
sisting of  several  parts  are  used  only  in  the  plural. 

scissors;  victuals;  scales;  measles;  shears;  pincers;  tongs; 
breeches;  tweezers;  trousers;  nuptials;  entrails;  dregs; 
matins. 

11.  Compound  nouns  usually  form  the  plural  by  adding 
s  or  es  to  the  principal  word. 

courts-martial;  sons-in-law;  passers-by. 

Note:  (a)  When  the  parts  are  closely  joined,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  add  the  sign  of  the  plural  at  the  end  of  the  compound 
word;  thus:  four-per-cents;  bystanders,  (b)  A  few  compound 
words  form  the  plural  by  adding  the  sign  of  the  plural  to  each 
important  part;  thus:  knights-templars;  men-servants. 

12.  Some  nouns  have  the  same  forms  in  both  the  singular 
and  the  plural. 

deer;  fish;  trout;  mink;  otter;  grouse;  quail;  sheep. 

13.  A  noun  modified  by  a  numeral  sometimes  omits  the 

sign  of  the  plural. 

five  yoke  of  oxen ;  ten  dozen  eggs ;  fourteen  pair  of  gloves ; 
eighteen  head  of  cattle;  a  two-foot  rule. 

14.  A  few  nouns  derived  from  the  Greek,  ending  in  ics, 

are  ordinarily  used  in  the  singular. 

politics;  ethics;  physics;  mathematics;  optics;  statics;  eco- 
nomics. 


POSSESSIVES  43 

Note:  Some  of  these  nouns  are  occasionally  used  in  the 
plural  by  good  writers. 

15.  Proper  nouns  usually  form  their  plurals  in  the  regular 
manner.  Thus  a  proper  noun  forms  its  plural  by  adding  s, 
if  the  plural  is  not  pronounced  with  an  extra  syllable;  a 
proper  noun  ending  in  a  consonant  forms  its  plural  by 
adding  es,  if  the  plural  is  pronounced  with  an  extra  syl- 
lable. 

the  three  Marys;  in  the  time  of  the  Henrys;  the  Lelys; 
the  Joneses;  the  five  little  Robertses;  the  Howellses;  the 
Charleses;  the  Burnses. 

16.  The  plural  of  letters,  figures,  symbols,  and  words 
considered  as  words  is  formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe 
and  s  to  the  singular. 

(a)  There  should  be  two  l's  in  that  word. 

(6)  When  6's  are  inverted,  they  look  like  9's. 

(c)  One  of  those  that 's  might  be  omitted. 

Caution:  The  plural  of  ordinary  nouns  should  never  be 
formed  by  the  addition  of  an  apostrophe  and  s  to  the  singular. 

Bad:  I  saw  two  bear's  climbing  a  tree. 
Correct:  I  saw  two  bears  climbing  a  tree. 
Bad:  The  Morse's  are  going  to  California. 
Correct:  The  Morses  are  going  to  California. 

8.  POSSESSIVES 

1.  To  form  the  possessive  of  a  singular  noun  add  's. 
boy,  boy's;  John,  John's. 

2.  To  form  the  possessive  of  a  plural  noun,  add  only  the 
apostrophe. 

boys,  boys';  horses,  horses'. 

Note  :  If  the  plural  ends  in  the  letter  n,  's  must  be  added, 
men,  men's;  women,  women's;  children,  children's. 

3.  If  the  singular  ends  in  s  or  x,  since  the  possessive  s  is, 


44  ESTABLISHED  USAGES 

for  the  sake  of  euphony,  generally  not  pronounced,  the 
apostrophe  may  alone  be  used  to  indicate  possession. 
Moses'  rod;  Jones'  business. 

4.  In  the  case  of  inanimate  things  and  with  the  names  of 
cities  and  countries  the  preposition  of  should  be  used 
instead  of  the  apostrophe. 

the  cover  of  the  book;  the  population  of  New  York. 

5.  Possessive  pronouns  do  not  take  the  apostrophe, 
his,  hers,  its,  ours,  yours,  theirs. 

6.  If  two  words  are  in  apposition,  the  sign  of  the  posses- 
sive is  usually  added  to  the  latter. 

Richard  Cceur  de  Lion's  army;  Smith  the  hatter's  store. 

7.  In  compound  nouns  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is 
usually  added  to  the  last  word. 

brother-in-law's  house;  attorney-general's  death. 

8.  A  noun  or  pronoun  modifying  a  verbal  noun  or 
gerund  must  be  in  the  possessive  case. 

(a)  I  cannot  imagine  his  refusing. 

(&)  I  object  to  my  daughter's  marrying  him. 

Note:  Compound  expressions  omit  the  sign  of  the  posses- 
sive. 

There  is  no  possibility  of  the  question  of  his  eligibility  being 
decided  before  the  game  begins. 

9.  In  the  phrases  anybody  else,  somebody  else,  every  one 
else,  nobody  else,  and  no  one  else,  the  form  of  the  possessive  to 
be  preferred  is  else's. 

I  found  that  I  had  taken  some  one  else's  umbrella. 

10.  The  distinction  should  be  noted  between  a  painting  of 
my  father  and  a  painting  of  my  father's. 

11.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  ambiguity  some- 
times arising  from  a  use  of  the  possessive  which  may  be 
understood  in  either  the  subjective  or  the  objective  sense. 


RULES  FOR  SPELLING  45 

In  the  sentence  The  love  of  children  is  a  feeling  of  high 
moral  value,  the  subject  may  imply  either  the  love  which 
children  feel  or  the  love  which  others  have  for  children.  The 
former  is  an  example  of  the  subjective  possessive,  and  the 
latter  an  instance  of  the  objective  use  of  the  possessive. 

9.   RULES  FOR  SPELLING 

1.  In  adding  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel,  monosylla- 
bles and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable  double  the 
final  consonant  if  it  is  preceded  by  a  vowel. 

plan,  planning;  infer,  inferred;  regret,  regretting;  excel, 
excelling;  repel,  repellant;  expel,  expelled. 

Note  :  There  are  a  few  exceptions  to  this  rule,  as  there  are 
to  most  rules  for  spelling. 

2.  A  word  ending  in  a  double  consonant  usually  keeps 
both  consonants  when  a  suffix  of  one  or  more  syllables  is 
added. 

stiff,  stiffness;  shrill,  shrilling;  distress,  distressing. 

Exceptions:  almost;  although;  altogether;  albeit. 

Caution:  All  right  does  not  belong  in  the  group  given 
above;  it  is  composed  of  two  separate  words,  and  should  never 
be  spelled  as  one  word. 

3.  Final  e  is  usually  retained  before  a  suffix  beginning 
with  a  consonant. 

fade,  fadeless;  amaze,  amazement;  enhance,  enhancement; 
fine,  finely;  sincere,  sincerely. 

Exceptions:  awful;  duly;  truly;  wholly;  nursling;  acknowl- 
edgment (also  spelled  acknowledgement;)  abridgment  (also 
spelled  abridgement);  judgment  (also  spelled  judgement).  In 
England  the  last  three  words  are  usually  spelled  with  the  e 
before  the  suffix. 

4.  Final  e,  when  silent,  is  usually  omitted  before  a  suf- 
fix beginning  with  a  vowel. 

grieve,  grievance;  make,  making;  please,  pleasure. 


46  ESTABLISHED  USAGES 

Exceptions:  Words  ending  in  ce  or  ge  retain  the  e  in  order 
to  keep  c  and  g  soft  before  suffixes  beginning  with  a  and  o. 
service,  serviceable;  change,  changeable;  manage,  manage- 
able; outrage,  outrageous. 

5.  Final  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  is  retained  when  a  suffix 
is  added. 

monkey,  monkeys;  joy,  joyful;  enjoy,  enjoying. 

6.  Final  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  is  usually  changed  to 
i  when  a  suffix  is  added,  except  when  the  suffix  is  ing. 

icy,  iciest;  cozy,  coziest,  cozily;  tidy,  tidiness,  tidying;  dry, 
drying. 

7.  A  small  group  of  words  in  which  the  digraphs  ei  and  ie 
occur  may  be  tested  by  the  word  Alice. 

Thus  i  comes  after  I,  as  in  relieve;  e  comes  after  c,  as  in 
deceive. 

believe;  conceive;  receive. 

Note:  The  following  words  do  not  come  under  the  rule: — 
ancient;  conscientious;  counterfeit;  height;  heinous;  seize; 
mischievous;  siege;  weird. 

REFERENCES 

Bell,  R.  H.  Changing  Values  of  English  Speech,  pp.  217-53. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.  Enlarged  Practice-Book  in  English  Composition, 

pp.  128^9. 
Jordan,  M.  A.   Correct  Writing  and  Speaking,  pp.  193-206. 
Matthews,  Brander.  Parts  of  Speech,  pp.  295-340. 
Newcomer  and  Seward.  Rhetoric  in  Practice,  pp.  182-88. 
Woolley,  E.  C.   Mechanics  of  Writing,  pp.  25-75. 

WORDS  COMMONLY  MISSPELLED 

abscess  acquiescence  anaesthetic 

accept  (cf.  except)  adviser  angel  (cf.  angle) 

accidentally  affect  (cf.  effect)  antithesis 

accommodate  alley  arctic 

ascetic  ally  athletic 

acoustics  altogether  augur  (cf.  auger) 


RULES  FOR  SPELLING 


47 


balance 

ecstasy 

liquefy 

Baptist 

eighth 

lizard 

boundary 

embarrass 

loose  (cf.  lose) 

burglar 

emigrate 

lovable 

business 

ensconce 

maintenance 

calcimine 

erysipelas 

mathematics 

calendar  (cf.  calen- 

especially 

mineralogy 

der) 

excel 

mischievous 

casualty- 

exhilarate 

monastery 

cavalry  (cf.  calvary)  extol 

necessary 

cede 

feasible 

Niagara 

cemetery  (cf.  semi- 

February 

nineteenth 

nary) 

fiance*  (cf.  finance) 

oblige 

changeable 

fiery 

occasion 

chute  (cf.  shoot) 

fortieth 

occasionally 

complement 

forty  (cf .  four) 

odor 

compliment 

fricassee 

opposite 

confectionery 

frieze  (cf.  freeze) 

original 

conscience 

fuchsia 

outrageous 

conscious 

genealogy 

paraffine 

corroborate 

gnarl 

parallel 

costume  (cf .  custom)  Grecian 

parliament 

criticize 

grievous 

participle 

cupola 

guerrilla  (cf.  gorilla) 

i  passenger 

currant  (cf.  current)  Hallow-e'en 

pavilion 

decease  (cf.  disease) 

harass 

percolator 

deceive 

height 

perhaps 

definite 

humorous 

perspiration 

delirium 

immediate 

possession 

description 

impassable 

potato 

desiccate 

impromptu 

prairie 

despair 

indispensable 

precede  (cf.  proceed) 

despondent 

infinite 

prejudice 

dessert  (cf.  desert) 

irrelevant 

preparation 

dining 

laboratory 

prescription 

disagreeable 

larynx 

principal  (cf .  princi- 

disappear 

later  (cf.  latter) 

ple) 

disappoint 

license 

privilege 

discomfit 

lily 

procedure  (cf .  pro- 

dispel 

lineament    (cf.   lini- 

ceed) 

divisor 

ment) 

professor 

48 


ESTABLISHED  USAGES 


prophecy  (cf .  pro- 

siege (cf.  seize) 

too 

phesy) 

similar 

tragedy 

prosecute  (cf .  perse- 

simulate 

triple 

cute) 

sleight 

trousers 

pursue 

sophomore 

truly 

quiet  (cf .  quite) 

Spanish 

Tuesday 

rarefy 

stationery  (cf .  sta- 

tyranny 

rarity 

tionary) 

vegetable 

receive 

statue  (cf.  stature) 

vermilion 

recommend 

stratagem  (cf .  strat- 

victuals (cf.  vitals) 

relieve 

egy) 

villain 

repetition 

studying 

wafer 

resurrection 

succession 

waive  (cf.  wave) 

rhythm 

suffrage 

whether  (cf.  weather) 

ridiculous 

supersede 

weird 

sacrilegious  (cf .  re- 

surprise 

welcome 

ligious) 

suspicion 

welfare 

secede 

temperament 

Welsh 

seize 

temperature 

woman 

separate 

thorough 

writing 

shining 

till 

n 

GRAMMATICAL   REQUIREMENTS 
i.  SYNTAX 

Case 

1.  The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Ordinarily,  this  rule  presents  no  difficulties;  occasionally, 
some  care  must  be  taken  to  apply  it  in  the  use  of  pronouns. 

Correct  : 

(a)  You  know  that  as  well  as  I.  [/  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb  know,  understood.] 

(6)  The  lawyer  has  a  larger  income  than  he  [has]. 

(c)  My  brother,  who  [not  whom]  I  supposed  had  perpe- 
trated the  joke,  denied  all  knowledge  of  it.  [Who  is 
the  subject  of  had  perpetrated.] 

2.  The  complement  of  an  intransitive  verb  is  in  the 

nominative  case. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  applying  this  rule  to  the  forms 
of  the  verb  be. 

Correct: 

(a)  It  was  he  who  asked  for  it. 

(b)  The  victims  were  they  who  least  suspected  treason. 

(c)  I  did  not  think  it  could  be  she. 

(d)  It  is  /. 

3.  The  object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition  is  in  the  objec- 
tive case. 

One  sometimes  forgets  to  apply  this  rule  when  the  object 
precedes  or  is  widely  separated  from  the  verb  or  preposition. 
Correct: 

(a)  I  could  not  guess  whom  he  had  given  it  to. 


50  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

(6)  Whom  do  you  think  I  met  on  the  street  the  other 
day? 

(c)  He  gave  tickets  to  the  man  who  had  just  arrived,  and 
to  me. 

(d)  I  met  her  sister  and  her  uncle,  —  him  of  the  immense 
fortune  and  the  bad  manners.  [Him  is  in  apposition 
with  uncle,  which  is  in  the  objective  case.] 

4.  A  noun  or  pronoun  modifying  another  noun  or  pro- 
noun meaning  the  same  thing  is  in  the  same  case  as  the 
word  it  modifies. 

Such  a  substantive  is  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  the 
substantive  that  it  explains. 
Correct: 

(a)  The  next  person  to  arrive  was  the  prince,  —  he  of  the 
golden  wand.  [He  is  in  apposition  with  prince,  a  noun 
in  the  nominative  case;  hence  the  nominative  form  of 
the  pronoun.] 

(6)  The  woman  who  brought  the  message  —  she  who  had 
endured  so  many  hardships  —  received  a  suitable 
reward. 

5.  A  noun  or  pronoun  modifying  another  noun  or  pro- 
noun signifying  a  different  thing  is  in  the  possessive  case. 

Correct: 

(a)  She  gave  me  one  of  her  books. 

(b)  I  had  not  heard  of  the  hunter's  departure. 

(c)  I  had  not  heard  of  the  hunter's  leaving  the  camp. 

(d)  I  was  annoyed  at  his  arrival. 

(e)  I  was  annoyed  at  his  arriving  so  early. 

In  the  sentence  just  given,  arriving  is  a  verb-form  with  a 
noun-meaning  and  a  noun-use.  The  pronoun  modifying  it 
should  have  the  possessive  case.  See  Possessives,  pages  43-45. 

6.  The  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  in  the  objective  case. 
Correct: 

(a)  The  farmer,  whom  I  considered  to  be  comfortably 
situated,  began  to  grumble.  [  Whom  is  the  subject  of 


SYNTAX  51 

the  infinitive  to  be.  Note  the  difference  between  this 
sentence  and  the  third  under  i,  page  49.] 

(6)  He  did  not  believe  me  to  be  the  rightful  heir. 

(c)  I  did  not  want  her  to  see  me. 

*J.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person, 
gender,  and  number,  but  not  in  case. 
Correct: 

(a)  I,  who  am  the  last  of  my  line,  tell  you  this.  [Who, 
agreeing  with  /,  is  in  the  first  person;  it  demands  the 
verb  am.] 

(b)  He  will  give  the  message  to  you,  who  are  the  legal 
representative  of  the  family. 

(c)  Every  one  gave  his  name  and  address. 

(d)  Many  a  soldier  forgot  himself  in  the  struggle. 

(e)  The  box  was  lying  on  its  side. 

Adjectives  and  adverbs 

1.  An  adjective  modifies  a  noun  or  its  equivalent. 
Correct: 

(a)  Courageous  men  do  not  flinch  in  danger. 

(b)  Empty  casks  were  lying  on  the  floor. 

(c)  He  gave  me  some  apples. 

2.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  or  other  adverbs. 

Careless  persons  sometimes  use  adjectives  for  adverbs. 

Incorrect:  You  did  your  work  just  splendid. 

Correct:  You  did  your  work  very  well.  [Splendidly  is  not  an 
appropriate  adverb  here.] 

Incorrect:  I  think  he  is  some  better. 

Correct:  I  think  he  is  somewhat  better.  See  some,  page  182. 

Agreement  of  subject  and  predicate 

I.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  person  and 
number.  A  singular  noun  demands  a  singular  verb-form;  a 
plural  or  compound  subject  demands  a  plural  verb. 


52  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

Correct: 

(a)  The  commander  of  the  troops  was  an  Englishman. 

(b)  A  woman  and  a  child  were  in  the  room. 

2.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  modifying  elements 
placed  between  subject  and  predicate  do  not  obscure  the 
necessity  for  agreement. 

Incorrect:  The  purpose  of  these  remarkably  delicate  instru- 
ments were  not  clearly  understood. 

Correct:  The  purpose  of  these  remarkably  delicate  instru- 
ments was  not  clearly  understood. 

3.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected  by  or  or  nor 
require  a  singular  verb. 

Correct: 

(a)  Either  a  criminal  or  a  madman  has  done  this  deed. 
(6)  Neither  Keats  nor  Shelley  uses  the  word. 

4.  The  compound  conjunction  as  well  as  requires  a  sin- 
gular verb,  because  it  permits  the  mind  to  consider  each 
noun  separately. 

Correct:  The  hero,  as  well  as  his  son,  was  condemned  to 
death. 

5.  A  singular  subject  modified  by  a  phrase  in  which 
with  is  the  introductory  preposition  demands  a  singular 
verb. 

Correct:  The  President,  with  his  secretary,  is  on  the  train. 

6.  When  two  or  more  nouns  used  as  subjects  of  the  same 
verb  seem  to  be  identical  in  meaning,  they  may  take  a 
singular  verb. 

Correct:  Poverty  and  need  now  compels  me  to  part  with  this 
treasure. 

In  such  a  case  it  is  usually  wise  to  omit  one  of  the  redundant 
expressions;  nevertheless,  there  are  situations,  especially  in 
poetry,  in  which  the  double  nouns  are  emphatic  and  effective. 


SYNTAX  53 

7.  The  expressions  each,  every,  one,  every  one,  everybody, 
a  person,  no  one,  and  nobody  take  verbs  in  the  singular. 

Correct: 

(a)  Each  member  contributes  what  he  can. 
(6)  Nobody  sees  any  difference  in  her  behavior, 
(c)  A  person  never  knows  what  to  expect  when  he  goes 
there. 

8.  Collective  nouns  take  singular  or  plural  predicates, 
according  to  the  meaning  intended. 

Correct: 

(a)  The  crowd  is  densely  packed  in  the  public  square. 

(b)  The  crowd  are  not  all  of  the  same  mind. 

EXERCISE 

Correct  the  syntax  in  the  following  sentences:  — 

1.  The  sudden  appearance  of  thousands  of  soldiers  marching  on 
the  plains  below  were  striking  in  the  extreme. 

2.  Here  is  wealth  and  beauty,  and  all  that  one's  heart  could 
wish. 

3.  Science,  as  well  as  philosophy  and  religion,  agree  with  this 
theory. 

4.  A  course  in  ancient  history,  with  a  few  lectures  on  Greek  art, 
were  offered  this  year. 

5.  Neither  of  them  show  any  signs  of  weakening. 

6.  In  both  these  cases  there  is  avarice  and  cruelty  displayed. 

7.  One  class  of  writers  have  favored  this  method. 

8.  Sneers  and  insults  was  all  our  reward. 

9.  Each  of  the  miners  were  jubilant  at  the  prospect. 

10.  He  is  one  of  the  fastest  runners  that  has  ever  run  on  this 
track. 

11.  Between  you  and  I,  the  fault  is  Herbert's. 

12.  Let  he  who  hears  profit  by  my  words. 

13.  Who  are  you  looking  for? 

14.  Who  should  you  like  to  have  win? 

15.  Whom  do  you  think  won  the  race? 

16.  The  congregation  was  free  to  express  their  opinion. 

17.  He  wrote  her  letters,  sentimental  and  otherwise. 


54  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

18.  She  looks  charmingly  to-night. 

19.  I  think  you  should  have  repeated  it  very  slow. 

20.  It  can  be  done  as  easy  as  rolling  off  a  log. 

21.  This  matter  affects  both  my  brother  and  I. 

22.  It  was  her  you  saw  at  the  window. 

23.  Him  that  you  would  have  murdered  has  fled. 

24.  Who  shall  I  let  take  control  in  my  absence? 

25.  He  selected  the  guide  whom  he  thought  was  the  most  capable. 

26.  I  have  never  seen  so  agreeable  a  woman  as  her. 

27.  What  distinguished  Frederick  and  Walter  were  their  man- 
ners. 

28.  "Gulliver's  Travels"  are  most  amusing. 

29.  The  affair  went  on  without  me  being  aware  of  it. 

30.  I  don't  think  we  ought  to  mention  him  being  here. 

31.  I  never  believed  it  was  him. 

32.  The  music  sounded  sweetly. 

33.  He  was  one  of  those  men  who  always  get  angry  if  any  one 
disagrees  with  him. 

34.  She  is  one  of  those  women  who  is  determined  to  take  the 
worst  of  everything. 

35.  It  was  her  to  whom  you  gave  it. 

REFERENCES 

Abbott,  E.  A.  How  to  Write  Clearly. 

Bell,  R.  H.   The  Changing  Values  of  English  Speech,  pp.  97-107. 
Brewsteb,  W.  T.   English  Composition  and  Style,  pp.  486-93. 
Cody,  Sherwin.  Art  of  Writing  and  Speaking  the  English  Language : 

Grammar  and  Punctuation. 
Genung,  J.  F.    The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  221-310. 
Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Composition,  pp.  87-130. 
Hill,  A.  S.  Beginnings  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  44-340. 
Hinsdale,  B.  A.   Teaching  the  Language-Arts,  pp.  147-70. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.   Enlarged  Practice  Book  in  English  Composition, 

pp.  150-211. 
Jordan,  M.  A.   Correct  Writing  and  Speaking,  pp.  207-20. 
Kimball,  L.  G.  Structure  of  the  English  Sentence. 
Krapp,  G.  P.   Modern  English,  pp.  286-324. 
Nesfield,  J.  C.  Errors  in  English  Composition. 
Nichol,  John.  English  Composition,  pp.  18-33. 
Sheffield,  A.  D.   Grammar  and  Thinking. 
Stebbins,  C.  M.  A  Progressive  Course  in  English,  pp.  175-218. 
Strang,  H.  I.  Exercises  in  English,  pp.  1-67. 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES  55 

Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  455-504. 

Welsh,  A.  H.  English  Composition. 

Woollet,  E.  C.  Handbook  of  Composition,  pp.  1-125. 

2.  SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES 

In  all  written  discourse,  an  appropriate  relation  of  tense- 
forms  should  be  preserved.  It  is  impossible  to  give  rules 
that  will  apply  to  every  situation  in  which  complications  of 
lenses  are  involved.  A  writer  must  learn  to  take  great  care 
with  his  verbs,  so  that  the  time  relations  expressed  may  be 
exactly  what  he  intends.  A  few  rules  for  the  use  of  tense- 
forms  are  given  below. 

1.  In  dependent  clauses  and  infinitives,  the  tense  is  to 
be  considered  in  relation  to  the  time  expressed  in  the  prin- 
cipal clause. 

Inaccurate:  I  intended  to  have  gone. 

In  this  sentence  the  principal  verb  intended  is  in  the  past 
tense;  the  speaker,  then,  at  the  (past)  time  indicated,  expected 
something.  What?  Did  he  intend  to  have  gone,  or  did  he  intend 
to  got  Clearly,  his  intention  was  not  to  have  gone,  but  to  go.  Th* 
tense  in  the  infinitive  should  be  governed  by  the  idea  conveyed 
in  /  intended. 

Accurate:  I  intended  to  go. 

Incorrect:  We  should  have  been  glad  to  have  given  up  our 
plans. 

Correct:  We  should  have  been  glad  to  give  up  our  plans. 

Incorrect:  I  wanted  to  have  asked  you  a  question  when  I 
saw  you  yesterday. 

Correct:  I  wanted  to  ask  you  a  question  when  I  saw  you 
yesterday. 

Incorrect:  I  did  not  suppose  that  you  would  have  done  it. 

Correct:  I  did  not  suppose  that  you  would  do  it. 

2.  When  a  piece  of  narration  in  the  past  tense  is  inter- 
rupted for  reference  to  a  preceding  occurrence,  the  past- 
perfect  should  be  used. 


56  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

Vague:  Armed  in  such  a  combat  sat  Hawkins,  the  chief 
clerk,  a  grim  man,  dark,  pallid,  sinister.  Of  what,  out  in 
the  world  of  life,  Hawkins  was  chief  clerk,  it  does  not 
matter  now.  He  was  a  busy  man,  firm,  taciturn,  self- 
contained.  He  sat  now  at  his  post  in  the  battle,  sneering 
at  the  folly  of  those  who  were  trying  to  wrest  a  few 
mortal  moments  from  eternity. 

Clear:  Armed  in  such  a  combat  sat  Hawkins,  the  chief 
clerk,  a  grim  man,  dark,  pallid,  sinister.  Of  what,  out  in 
the  world  of  life,  Hawkins  had  been  chief  clerk,  it  does 
not  matter  now.  He  had  been  a  busy  man,  firm,  taci- 
turn, self-contained.  He  sat  now  at  his  post  in  the  battle, 
sneering  at  the  folly  of  those  about  him  who  were  trying 
to  wrest  a  few  mortal  moments  from  eternity.  William 
Allen  White:  The  Story  of  a  Grave. 

3.  Universal  truths,  or  general  propositions  into  which 
time  relations  do  not  enter,  should  usually  be  expressed  in 
the  present  tense. 
Correct: 

(a)  She  said  that  Eskimos  live  in  snow  houses. 

(6)  A  good  name  is  rather  to  be  chosen  than  great  riches, 
and  loving  favor  rather  than  silver  and  gold. 
Note  :  Exceptions  occur  in  the  application  of  this  rule :  — 

(a)  When  the  author  does  not  agree  with  the  proposi- 
tion expressed. 

The  orator  remarked  that  we  were  a  most  unpatriotic 
nation. 

(6)  When  confusion  or  irritation  may  occur  by  reason 
of  frequent  changes  in  tense. 

Correct:  That  day  we  traveled  for  several  hours  beside  the 
Yellowstone  River.  It  was  a  dirty,  sluggish  stream  that 
disappointed  us  greatly,  for  we  had  expected  it  to  be 
clear  and  majestic.  The  next  day,  however,  we  found 
ourselves  among  the  mountains,  where  the  rivers,  though 
narrow  and  shallow,  were  delightfully  transparent,  show- 
ing every  variety  of  color  in  the  rocks  beneath.  They 
were  animated,  too,  and  full  of  rapids,  as  well  as  sudden 
foamy  falls. 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES  57 

No  doubt  the  Yellowstone  River  and  the  mountain  streams 
are  still  dirty  and  sluggish,  or  clear  and  animated,  as  the  case 
may  be;  but,  in  the  passage  given,  a  constant  change  of  tense 
for  past  events  and  present  conditions  would  prove  vexing  and 
futile.  Hence  the  past  is  consistently  employed.  (See  Rule  5 
below.) 

4.  The  historical  present,  or  the  device  of  throwing  past 

events  into  present  form  for  the  sake  of  vividness,  is  to  be 

used  with  caution. 

This  device  has  been  so  cheapened  by  mediocre  writers, 
that  it  is  not  to  be  recommended  except  in  rare  instances. 

5.  A  mixture  of  tenses  destroys  unity. 

Bad:  Sir  Hugh  now  proceeds  to  fight  with  the  stranger. 
The  sword  that  the  intruder  carried  was  exceedingly 
long  and  sharp,  with  a  golden  hilt.  Sir  Hugh,  although 
his  own  sword  is  blunted  by  his  previous  encounter, 
boldly  approaches  the  stranger,  and  prepared  for  a 
deadly  conflict. 

Better:  Sir  Hugh  now  proceeds  to  fight  with  the  stranger. 
The  sword  that  the  intruder  carries  is  exceedingly  long 
and  sharp,  with  a  golden  hilt.  Sir  Hugh,  although  his 
own  sword  is  blunted  by  his  previous  encounter,  boldly 
approaches  the  stranger,  and  prepares  for  a  deadly 
conflict. 

EXERCISE 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences.   Give  reasons 
for  changes :  — 

1.  He  might  have  succeeded  in  winning  the  prize,  if  he  would 
only  consent  to  abide  by  the  rules. 

2.  It  was  almost  inevitable  that  dissensions  should  have  taken 
place. 

3.  He  thought  the  message  for  which  he  was  waiting  would 
never  have  arrived. 

4.  The  doctor  said  that  fever  always  produced  thirst. 

5.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  said  to  be  written  by 
Jefferson. 

6.  There  were  some  bits  of  news  that  she  would  like  to  have 
revealed  to  him. 


58  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

7.  He  perceived  that  the  world  was  ruled  by  a  just  Being. 

8.  If  he  were  not  so  lazy,  he  might  have  achieved  distinction. 

9.  If  he  should  be  elected,  he  will  do  his  best  to  promote  your 
interests. 

10.  If  misfortune  should  come,  I  shall  be  prepared  for  it. 

11.  I  should  have  liked  to  have  climbed  the  mountain,  but  the 
weather  was  too  cold. 

12.  Miss  Young  will  be  happy  to  accept  Mrs.  Howard's  kind 
invitation. 

13.  I  was  just  going  out  of  the  house,  when  down  falls  a  chimney 
across  the  street.  I  thinks  to  myself,  "It  must  be  an  earth- 
quake"; and  so  it  was. 

14.  I  have  never  explained  to  them  that  Russia  was  a  monarchy. 

15.  If  I  had  have  known  that  I  could  have  gone  with  them,  I 
should  have  been  glad  to  have  postponed  my  bridge-party. 

16.  They  did  not  believe  that  the  earth  was  round. 

3.   SHALL  AND   WILL 

1.  Some  distinction  should  be  made  between  shall  and 

will. 

Although  the  speech  of  educated  people  shows  a  tendency 
to  disregard  minute  differences  in  the  use  of  shall  and  will, 
written  discourse  still  demands  a  careful  preservation  of  the 
simpler  distinctions. 

2.  When  simple  futurity  is  expressed,  shall  is  used  in  the 

first  person  and  will  in  the  second  and  third  persons. 

"Simple  futurity"  means  a  prediction  of  what  is  likely  to 
occur,  —  an  assertion  that  a  particular  event  is  likely  to  take 
place ;  in  this  sense  it  includes  intention  in  which  no  real  effort 
of  will  is  implied. 

I  shall  write  a  letter;  we  shall  write  a  letter;  you  will  write 
a  letter;  he  will  write  a  letter. 

3.  When  determination,  command,  threat,  or  promise  is 

expressed,  will  is  used  in  the  first  person,  and  shall  in  the 

second  and  third  persons. 

(a)  Will  used  with  /  or  we  (the  first  person  singular  and 
plural)  expresses  determination,  usually  in  the  face  of  opposi- 


SHALL  AND  WILL 


59 


tion ;  hence  it  implies  an  effort  of  will  not  manifested  in  the  quiet 
prediction  of  shall.  "We  will  do  it,  regardless  of  your  opinion" 
is  a  strong  expression  of  determination. 

(b)  Sometimes,  however,  will  used  with  the  first  person 
expresses  promise,  as  in  the  sentence,  "I  will  be  there  at  two 
o'clock."  The  context  usually  supplies  information  as  to  the 
meaning  intended. 

(c)  Shall  used  with  the  second  or  third  person  implies  com- 
mand, threat,  or  promise  on  the  part  of  the  speaker;  in  each 
case  a  distinct  effort  of  decision  is  involved. 

You  shall  pay  for  this;  you  shall  do  as  I  request;  he  shall 
pay  for  this;  she  shall  go  if  I  tell  her  to;  they  shall  suffer  for  this; 
they  shall  obey  orders. 

The  use  of  shall  and  will  is  shown  below:  — 


1st  person 

2d  person 

3d  person 

shall 

futurity 

determination 

command 

promise 

determination 

threat 

promise 

will 

determination 
promise 

futurity 

futurity 

Futurity 

Determination,  command, 
threat,  or  promise 

Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

I  shall 
you  will 
he  will 

we  shall 
you  will 
they  will 

I  will 
you  shall 
he  shall 

we  will 
you  shall 
they  shall 

4.  In  asking  questions  (a)  shall  is  almost  invariably 
used  with  the  first  person;  !  (b)  shall  or  will  is  used  with  the 

1  An  exception  to  this  rule  is  the  case  in  which  the  speaker  repeats  a 
question  that  has  been  put  to  him.  "Will  I  vote  for  you?  Most  assur- 
edly." 


60  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

second  and  third  persons,  according  to  the  form  expected 
in  the  answer. 

Shall  you  buy  an  automobile? 

If  the  speaker  is  requesting  a  mere  prediction,  or  expression 
of  intention,  shall  is  correct  in  this  situation.  Presumably  the 
answer  will  be  "I  shall"  [or  shall  not]. 

Will  you  buy  an  automobile? 

Here  the  situation  is  different.  The  speaker  implies  in  the 
form  of  his  question  that  he  expects  the  person  with  whom  he 
is  talking  to  go  through  some  effort  of  decision  before  replying. 
The  answer  will  be,  "I  will  —  I  promise  to  "  [or  the  negative]. 

Shall  I  give  you  some  tea?   [First  person  used  in  asking 
question.] 

Shall  you  be  at  home  to-morrow?  [Prediction  requested.] 

Will  he  be  at  home  to-morrow?  [Prediction  requested.] 

Shall  he  put  on  the  storm  windows?  [Command  requested.] 

Will  you  give  me  a  dollar?  [Promise  or  decision  requested.] 

5.  For  practical  purposes,  should  and  would  follow  the 
same  rules  as  those  followed  by  shall  and  will. 

(a)  I  thought  that  I  should  be  there  by  this  time. 
(&)  I  told  him  that  I  positively  would  not  go. 

(c)  If  you  had  come  earlier,  you  would  have  found  me  at 
home. 

(d)  I  told  them  that  they  should  suffer  for  it. 

Note  1 :  Should  is  used  in  the  subjunctive  to  express  con- 
tingency, or  some  conditional  situation. 

(a)  If  he  should  come,  we  could  go  at  once. 

(6)  If  they  should  molest  us,  we  could  not  defend  ourselves. 

(c)  If  you  should  consent  to  it,  you  would  be  doing  a  great 

wrong. 
Note  2:  Should  is  used  to  express  obligation. 

(a)  You  should  write  to  jrour  mother  every  week. 

(b)  He  should  never  lose  his  temper. 

(c)  They  should  always  do  as  they  are  told. 


VOICE  61 


EXERCISE 


As  the  situation  may  demand,  insert  either  shall  or  will  into 
the  blank  spaces  below. 

1.  I be  glad  to  see  you  when  you  come. 

2.  If  you do  this  for  me,  I give  you  a  hundred 

dollars. 

3.  Do  you  think  that  we meet  again? 

4 I  bring  you  a  glass  of  water? 

5 you  go  to  Philadelphia  to-morrow,  as  you  planned? 

6.  The  train arrive  at  one  o'clock. 

7.  Poetry always  tend  to  elevate  the  drama. 

8.  I  fear  that  I never  recover. 

9.  He  fears  that  he never  recover. 

10.  I do  it,  in  spite  of  what  you  say. 

11 you  do  me  a  favor? 

12.  I  am  sure  that  they conduct  themselves  with  great 

discretion. 

13.  I call  on  an  old  friend  of  mine  this  afternoon. 

14.  I meet  you  at  any  place  you  choose. 

15.  They go,  whether  they  wish  to  or  not. 

16 you  buy  me  one  of  those  little  red  balloons? 

17 she  believe  such  a  doubtful  story? 

18 I  tell  the  gardener  to  spade  up  the  flower-beds? 

19 the  gardener  spade  up  the  flower-beds? 

20.  You pay  dearly  for  your  part  in  this  outrageous  affair. 

21.  I never  tell  the  facts  that  you  have  revealed  to  me. 

22.  We probably  call  upon  you  at  some  time  during  the 

day. 

23.  They not  stay  in  this  house  another  day. 

24.  We be  pleased  to  meet  your  friend. 

25.  You ,  in  time,  become  a  successful  writer. 

4.  VOICE 

I.  The  passive  voice  should  not  be  used  indiscriminately. 

A  very  clumsy  effect  is  produced  by  a  strained  and  illogical 
use  of  the  passive. 

Awkward:  That  easy  task  was  speedily  performed  by  me. 
Better:  I  speedily  performed  that  easy  task. 


62  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

In  using  the  passive,  one  should  stop  to  think  whether  it  is 
the  only  suitable  form  for  the  idea  to  be  expressed.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  active  is  likely  to  be  more  definite  and 
more  forcible  than  the  passive. 

Bad:  Of  course  this  fact  was  kept  away  from  the  family  by 

Amanda. 
Better:  Of  course  Amanda  kept  this  fact  away  from  the 
family. 

Awkwardly  inverted:  The  three  letters  were  found  by  him 
when  he  returned. 

Direct:  He  found  the  three  letters  when  he  returned. 

2.  The  passive  that  leaves  unexpressed  the  agent  of  an 

action  is  particularly  to  be  avoided. 

Vague:  A  plan  for  a  school  at  Haworth  was  devised. 

Clear:   The  Bronte  sisters  devised  a  plan  for  a  school  at 
Haworth. 

Vague:  The  promise  was  never  thought  of  again. 

Clear:  He  never  thought  of  his  promise  again. 

EXERCISE 

Improve  the  construction  in  the  following  sentences:  — 

1.  The  days  we  spent  in  Paris  will  never  be  forgotten. 

2.  Your  letter  was  received  by  us,  and  the  matter  of  which  you 
speak  has  received  our  careful  attention. 

3.  A  bright  red  cape  was  worn  by  the  girl,  and  a  small  traveling 
bag  was  held  in  her  right  hand. 

4.  The  piece  of  Chinese  embroidery  hanging  upon  the  wall  was 
i     closely  examined  by  the  visitor. 

5.  While  I  was  traveling  in  the  Far  East,  many  peculiar  native 
customs  were  noted  by  me  in  preparation  for  my  book  on 
Oriental  superstitions. 

6.  The  little  yellow  songster  had  been  noticed  by  the  cat,  who 
now  began  to  creep  stealthily  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  obliv- 
ious bird. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS 


63 


5.  IRREGULAR  VERBS 

Below  are  given  for  reference  the  principal  parts  of  irregular 
verbs  in  common  use:  — 


Present 
abide 

Past 
abode 

Past  Participle 
abode 

arise 

arose 

arisen 

awake 
be 

awoke  (awaked)  x 
was 

awoke  (awaked) 
been 

bear 
beat 

bore,  bare 
beat 

borne  [active],  born  [passive 
beaten 

begin 
bend 

began 
bent 

begun 
bent 

bereave 

bereft 

bereft 

beseech 

bet 

bid 

besought  (beseeched) 
bet  (betted) 
bade,  bid 

besought  (beseeched) 
bet  (betted) 
bidden,  bid 

bind 

bound 

bound,  bounden 

bite 

bit 

bitten,  bit 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

blow 

blew 

blown 

break 

broke,  brake 

broken 

breed 

bred 

bred 

bring 
build 
burn 
burst 

brought 

built  (builded) 
burnt  (burned) 
burst 

brought 
built  (builded) 
burnt  (burned) 
burst 

buy 

bought 
could 

cast 

bought 

cast 

cast 

catch 
chide 

caught 
chid 

caught 
chidden,  chid 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

cleave 

clave 

cleaved 

cleave 

cling 

clothe 

clove,  cleft  (cleaved) 

clung 

clad  (clothed) 

cloven,  cleft  (cleaved) 

clung 

clad  (clothed) 

come 

came 

come 

cost 

cost 

cost 

1  When  the  regular  form  is  in  good  use,  it  is  given  in  parentheses. 


64 


GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

creep 

crept 

crept 

crow 

crew  (crowed) 

crowed 

cut 

cut 

cut 

dare 

durst  (dared) 

dared 

deal 

dealt 

dealt 

dig 

dug  (digged) 

dug  (digged) 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

dream 

dreamt  (dreamed) 

dreamt  (dreamed] 

dress 

drest  (dressed) 

drest  (dressed) 

drink 

drank 

drunk,  drunken 

drive 

drove 

driven 

dwell 

dwelt  (dwelled) 

dwelt  (dwelled) 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

feed 

fed 

fed 

feel 

felt 

felt 

fight 

fought 

fought 

find 

found 

found 

flee 

fled 

fled 

fling 

flung 

flung 

fly 

flew 

flown 

forbear 

forbore 

forborne 

forbid 

forbade 

forbidden,  forbid 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten,  forgot 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

get 

got 

gotten,  got 

give 

gave 

given 

go 

went 

gone 

grind 

ground 

ground 

grow 

grew 

grown 

hang 

hung  (hanged) 

hung  (hanged) 

have 

had 

had 

hear 

heard 

heard 

heave 

hove  (heaved) 

hove  (heaved) 

hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

hit 

hit 

hit 

hold 

held 

held 

hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

keep 

kept 

kept 

IRREGULAR  VERBS 


65 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

kneel 

knelt  (kneeled) 

knelt  (kneeled) 

know 

knew 

known 

lay- 

laid 

laid 

lead 

led 

led 

lean 

leant  (leaned) 

leant  (leaned) 

leap 

leapt  (leaped) 

leapt  (leaped) 

learn 

learnt  (learned) 

learnt  (learned) 

leave 

left 

left 

lend 

lent 

lent 

let 

let 

let 

lie  [recline] 

lay 

lain 

lose 

lost 

lost 

make 

made 
might 

made 

may 

mean 

meant 

meant 

meet 

met 

met 

must 

ought 

pay 

paid 

paid 

put 

put 

put 

quit 

quit  (quitted) 
quoth 

quit  (quitted) 

read 

read  [red] 

read 

rend 

rent 

rent 

rid 

rid 

rid 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

ring 

rang 

rung 

rise 

rose 

risen 

run 

ran 

run 

say 

said 

said 

see 

saw 

seen 

seek 

sought 

sought 

sell 

sold 

sold 

send 

sent 

sent 

set 

set 

set 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shall 
shed 

should 
shed 

shed 

shine 

shone 

shone 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

66 


GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

shoot 

shot 

shot 

show 

showed 

shown 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

shut 

shut 

shut 

sing 

sang 

sung 

sink 

sank 

sunk, sunken 

sit 

sat 

sat 

slay 

slew 

slain 

sleep 

slept 

slept 

slide 

slid 

slid,  slidden 

sling 

slung 

slung 

slink 

slunk 

slunk 

slit 

slit 

slit 

smite 

smote 

smitten 

sow 

sowed 

sown 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

speed 

sped 

sped 

spend 

spent 

spent 

spin 

spun,  span 

spun 

spit 

spat,  spit 

spit 

split 

split 

split 

spread 

spread 

spread 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

stand 

stood 

stood 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

stick 

stuck 

stuck 

sting 

stung 

stung 

stink 

stank,  stunk 

stunk 

stride 

strode 

stridden 

strike 

struck 

struck,  stricken 

string 

strung 

strung 

strive 

strove 

striven 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

sweat 

sweat  (sweated) 

sweat  (sweated) 

sweep 

swept 

swept 

swell 

swelled 

swollen 

swim 

swam 

swum 

swing 

swung 

swung 

take 

took 

taken 

teach 

taught 

taught 

SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 


67 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

tear 

tore 

torn 

tell 

told 

told 

think 

thought 

thought 

thrive 

throve  (thrived) 

thriven  (thrived) 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

tread 

trod 

trodden,  trod 

wake 

woke  (waked) 

woke  (waked) 

wear 

wore 

worn 

weave 

wove 

woven 

weep 

wept 

wept 

will 

would 

win 

won 

won 

wind 

wound 

wound 

work 

wrought  (worked) 

wrought  (worked) 

wring 

wrung 

wrung 

write 

wrote 

written 

6.  SENTENCE   STRUCTURE 

[Note  to  Teacher:  Exercises  to  accompany  the  rules  for 
sentence  structure  are  given  on  page  102  et  seq.  They  follow  the 
order  of  the  rules  which  begin  on  this  page.] 

Unity 

I.  Unrelated  ideas  should  not  be  combined  in  one  sen- 
tence. 

The  following  sentence  lacks  unity  because  it  is  composed 
of  disconnected  ideas:  — 

This  man  lived  in  Illinois  and  his  theories  of  government 
were  peculiar. 

Such  a  sentence  can  be  improved  only  by  the  summary 
process  of  division. 

This  man  lived  in  Illinois.    His  theories  of  government 
were  peculiar. 

Bad:  Milton  was  one  of  a  large  family  and  was  sent  to 
Oxford  to  study  law. 

Better:  Milton  was  one  of  a  large  family.   He  was  sent  to 
Oxford  to  study  law. 


68  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

2.  Related  ideas  should  be  combined  in  such  a  way  that 
their  connection  is  immediately  clear. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  ideas  very  closely  associated 
appear  not  to  be  related,  when  they  are  loosely  put  together. 

Bad:  I  did  not  know  the  man's  name,  and  I  went  at  once  to 
his  employer. 

Better:  Not  knowing  the  name  of  the  man,  I  went  at  once  to 
his  employer. 

3.  Long  rambling  sentences  in  which  no  definite  thought 
predominates  are  especially  to  be  avoided. 

"Stringy"  sentences  can  be  improved  in  two  ways:  (a)  By 
separation  into  shorter  sentences;  (6)  by  reconstruction  so  that 
the  less  important  elements  are  subordinated  to  the  more 
important. 

Bad:  King  Arthur  is  a  very  admirable  man,  and  he  excels 
Launcelot  in  nobility  of  character  and  in  devotion  to  an 
ideal,  but  he  lacks  human  interest,  and  often  we  are 
inclined  to  prefer  the  faulty  subject  to  the  perfect  king. 

Better:  King  Arthur  is  an  admirable  man,  excelling  Launce- 
lot in  nobility  of  character  and  in  devotion  to  an  ideal. 
Nevertheless,  he  lacks  human  interest  to  such  an  extent 
that  we  are  inclined  to  prefer  the  faulty  subject  to  the 
perfect  king. 

Note  :  A  sentence  may  be  long  and  yet  be  unimpeachable  in 
its  unity;  witness  the  long  but  perfectly  constructed  sentences 
that  appear  in  the  works  of  Johnson  and  Macaulay. 

Shift  of  Construction 

Change  of  general  construction  (or  shift  of  point  of  view) 
within  the  sentence  should  be  avoided. 

Bad:  He  accosts  the  intruder,  but  instead  of  receiving  a 
courteous  reply,  the  creature  gives  a  horrible  grin. 

Here  the  subject  of  the  first  clause  is  he,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  the  sentence  is  such  that  we  expect  he  to  be  the  subject 
of  the  clause  that  follows,  instead  of  receiving.  To  our  surprise, 
the  subject  is  creature.  The  construction  has  been  shifted  so 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  60 

that  the  relations  of  the  various  parts  of  the  sentence  are 
grotesquely  confused.  A  consistent  structure  should  be  pre- 
served throughout. 

Better:  He  accosts  the  intruder,  but,  instead  of  a  courteous 
reply,  he  receives  from  the  creature  only  a  horrible  grin. 

Bad:  He  was  not  depressed  by  his  physical  suffering  any 
more  than  his  poverty  gave  him  concern. 

In  this  sentence  the  attention  is  first  centered  on  the  word 
he:  it  is  then  shifted  to  the  word  poverty,  so  that  the  person 
under  consideration  is  made  to  occupy  a  subordinate  position, 
in  the  objective  him.  The  construction  that  appears  in  the  first 
part  should  be  carried  out  in  the  second. 

Better:  He  was  not  depressed  by  his  physical  suffering,  any 
more  than  he  was  concerned  for  his  poverty. 

Caution:  In  general,  avoid  mixing  the  active  and  the  pas- 
sive voice  in  one  sentence. 

Bad:  He  uses  those  tools  often,  and  they  are  made  by  him 

to  serve  many  excellent  purposes. 
Better:  He  uses  those  tools  often,  and  makes  them  serve 

many  excellent  purposes. 

EXERCISE 

Reconstruct  the  following  sentences,  and  give  reasons  for  all 
changes :  — 

1.  It  is  just  a  year  since  the  foundation  was  laid,  and  the  cost  of 
the  whole  building  and  its  equipment  is  six  hundred  thousand 
dollars. 

2.  We  only  hope  that  the  money  resulting  from  the  sale  of  the 
property  may  be  used  in  buying  the  large  field  opposite  the 
chemistry  building,  and  with  dormitories  erected  do  not 
doubt  that  a  very  great  increase  of  students  will  be  noticed 
next  year. 

3.  Small  of  build  and  red-haired,  with  a  large  nose  and  thin  lips, 
she  had  been  twenty  years  in  Madame  Duparque's  service, 
and  was  accustomed  to  speak  her  mind. 

4.  The  games  were  very  interesting,  and  I  was  greatly  absorbed, 
and  when  I  started  home,  I  found  that  I  had  torn  a  large  hole 
in  my  best  blue  silk  gown. 


70  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

5.  The  character  of  his  work  is  unrestrained,  and  it  lacks  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  delicacy,  and  very  often  he  is  called  the 
"bourgeois  novelist." 

6.  Her  intellect  is  remarkable,  and  it  is  quite  appalling  to  think 
that  few  of  our  college  women  have  the  mental  strength  and 
broad  education  of  this  young  woman  who  spent  so  many 
years  keeping  house  for  her  father  in  an  obscure  village. 

7.  The  strength  of  her  convictions  enabled  her  to  defy  conven- 
tion and  apply  her  own  standard  of  right  and  wrong  when  the 
world  seemed  mistaken,  but  she  was  blinded  to  the  result  of 
the  influence  her  example  might  have  on  others  of  less  moral 
strength  by  the  strength  of  her  affection,  her  absolute  need 
of  human  sympathy. 

8.  Six  high  school  boys  who  have  already  won  medals  will  com- 
pete in  this  contest,  taking  their  subjects  from  the  great 
events  of  American  and  English  history,  and  the  price  of 
admission  will  be  ten  cents. 

9.  Mrs.  Julia  Peebles  returned  on  Friday  from  a  six  months' 
visit  with  her  daughter  in  Arizona,  where  she  went  for  the 
benefit  of  her  health,  the  climate  being  very  dry  and  invigor- 
ating, and  we  are  glad  to  say  that  she  is  much  improved  and 
expects  to  remain  in  Bear  Creek  for  the  rest  of  the  year,  or 
the  summer  at  least. 

10.  We  are  now  living  in  a  rented  apartment,  until  we  can  build  a 
new  house  which  is  to  be  designed  by  my  wife's  brother,  an 
architect  who  fives  in  Dayton,  Ohio,  where  the  disastrous 
flood  occurred  last  year. 

11.  Any  one  who  desires  to  learn  the  Chinese  language  must 
begin  young,  for  you  cannot  master  it  readily  after  you  are 
twenty-five. 

12.  Give  the  gun  a  thorough  cleaning  before  you  put  it  away,  and 
one  ought  to  oil  it  also. 

13.  They  did  the  work  rapidly,  and  soon  the  bridge  was  built. 

14.  Put  the  nuts  in  the  oven  to  brown  them,  and  one  can  easily 
tell  when  they  are  done,  for  they  will  have  assumed  a  rich 
brown  color. 

15.  It  has  never  been  done  badly  by  him,  and  sometimes  he  does 
it  with  extraordinary  skill. 

16.  The  men  who  did  this  work  were  considered  public  bene- 
factors, and  the  success  of  the  plan  was  so  great  that  the 
people  gave  them  a  demonstration  which  must  have  been 
much  appreciated  by  them. 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  71 

17.  Ethel  did  not  get  along  well  with  her  small  playmates,  and 
anyway  they  were  not  much  admired  by  her. 

18.  Far  down  the  river  there  was  a  lovely  vista  to  be  seen,  and 
from  my  window  I  could  look  out  upon  a  very  extensive  and 
beautiful  park. 

19.  While  a  tiny  speck  could  be  discerned  upon  the  horizon,  I  did 
not  wish  to  assume  that  the  boat  was  his,  nor  was  it  a  wise 
policy  to  excite  the  others  before  there  was  some  definite 
probability  of  the  craft's  being  the  one  which  we  were  all  so 
anxious  to  see. 

20.  She  wrote  me  a  very  incoherent  letter,  and  in  it  there  were 
many  persons  mentioned  of  whom  I  had  not  thought  for 
years,  by  which  fact  it  could  easily  be  discerned  that  her 
mind  was  reverting  to  the  scenes  of  our  childhood,  which  was 
spent  by  us  in  a  very  lovely  little  town  in  France. 

Agreement 

1.  Every  construction  in  a  sentence  should  be  in  har- 
mony with  every  other  construction. 

Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  order  that  a  construction 
once  begun  may  be  completed  in  a  logical  and  harmonious  way. 

Illogical:  The  material  used  is  much  more  elegant  than  her 
mother's  dress. 

Logical:  The  material  used  is  much  more  elegant  than  that 
in  her  mother's  dress. 

Obscure:  I  did  not  like  the  new  waitress  any  better  than 
Eleanor. 

Clear:  I  did  not  like  the  new  waitress  any  better  than 
Eleanor  did. 

Incorrect:  She  is  the  wealthiest  of  any  woman  here. 

Correct:  She  is  the  wealthiest  of  all  the  women  here. 

Incorrect:  Napoleon  was  the  greatest  of  all  other  generals. 

Correct:  Napoleon  was  the  greatest  of  all  generals. 

Incorrect:  Her  drawing  is  the  best  of  all  the  girls. 

Correct:  Her  drawing  is  better  than  any  other  girl's. 

2.  A  clause  introduced  by  when  or  where  should  not  be 
used  for  a  predicate  noun. 


72  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

When  and  where  clauses  are  sometimes  crudely  used  in 
defining  an  idea. 

Incorrect:  Astounded  is  when  you  are  overwhelmed  by  sur- 
prise. 

Correct:  Astounded  is  overwhelmed  by  surprise.  [Or]  Astounded 
means  overwhelmed  by  surprise. 

Incorrect:  Plutocracy  is  where  we  are  governed  by  the 

wealthy. 

Correct:  Plutocracy  is  government  by  the  wealthy. 

EXERCISE 

1.  My  brother's  efforts  were  as  unavailing  as  the  chauffeur  had 
been. 

2.  The  subject  that  interested  me  is  where  the  author  gives  an 
account  of  his  travels. 

3.  The  last  that  I  saw  of  him  was  his  unexpected  appearance  at 
the  Ambassador's  dinner-party. 

4.  The  home  of  the  artist  is  much  more  beautiful  than  the  miL 
lionaire. 

5.  The  size  of  the  country  is  no  greater  than  Greece. 

6.  This  ring  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  other  jewels  here. 

7.  I  never  supposed  the  income  of  a  stone  mason  to  be  larger 
than  a  preacher. 

8.  Anne  was  the  most  beautiful  of  all  her  cousins. 

9.  The  entrance  on  the  east  side  proved  to  be  as  marvellously 
carved  as  the  west  side. 

10.  This  church  is  the  largest  of  any  other  church  in  America. 

11.  Bryan  has  addressed  the  general  public  more   extensively 
than  the  Wisconsin  senator. 

12.  Parsimony  is  when  you  are  stingy. 

Parallelism 

I .  Ideas  which  are  equal  in  value  and  which  are  intended 
to  serve  similar  purposes  in  the  sentence  should  usually  be 
put  into  similar  form. 

Such  an  expression  of  ideas  is  called  parallelism.  It  is  an 
invaluable  method  of  arranging  material  in  compact  form,  and 
of  showing  relationships  in  thought. 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  73 

I  drowsed,  and  wondered  whether  the  telegraph  was  a 
blessing,  and  whether  this  dying  man  or  struggling 
people  might  be  aware  of  the  inconvenience  the  delay 
was  causing.  Kipling:  The  Man  Who  Would  be  King. 

Here,  there  are  several  cases  of  parallelism:  Drowsed  and 
wondered ;  whether  the  telegraph  was  a  blessing,  and  whether  this 
dying  man,  etc. ;  dying  man  and  struggling  people.  The  solidity 
and  the  effectiveness  of  the  sentence  are  greatly  increased  by 
the  use  of  parallel  constructions. 

Parallelism:  He  remembered  how  the  old  servants  used  to 
smile  as  they  opened  the  door  to  him ;  how  the  familiar 
butler  would  say,  when  he  had  been  absent  a  few  hours 
longer  than  usual,  "A  sight  of  you,  Mr.  Harding,  is  good 
for  sore  eyes";  how  the  fussy  housekeeper  would  swear 
that  he  could  n't  have  dined,  or  could  n't  have  break- 
fasted, or  couldn't  have  lunched.  Trollope:  Bar- 
chester  Towers. 

2.  Partial  parallelism  should  be  avoided. 

Incorrect:  The  room  was  small,  dark,  and  it  was  very 
scantily  furnished. 

In  this  sentence,  we  expect  that  and  will  be  followed  by  an 
adjective  to  complete  the  parallelism  begun  by  small  and  dark: 
but  we  find  that  the  series  is  left  incomplete. 

Correct:  The  room  was  small,  dark,  and  scantily  furnished. 
Incorrect:  His  psychology  is  very  crude,  unscientific,  and 

does  not  go  to  the  heart  of  the  matter. 
Correct:  His  psychology  is  crude  and  unscientific;  it  does 
not  go  to  the  heart  of  the  matter. 

Incorrect:  Then  came  the  wind,  roaring,  shrieking,  and 
trees  were  torn  up  by  it  as  it  passed. 

Correct:  Then  came  the  wind,  roaring,  shrieking,  and  tear- 
ing up  trees  as  it  passed. 

3.  Ideas  not  similar  in  quality  and  value  should  not  be 
paralleled,  except  for  humorous  effect. 

Inharmonious:  He  sacrificed  the  money  that  his  mother  had 
left  him,  and  the  sense  of  honor  that  he  had  derived  from 
his  father. 


74  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

Here  money  is  the  name  of  something  tangible  and  con- 
crete ;  sense  of  honor  is  the  name  of  something  intangible  and 
abstract.  The  two  expressions  cannot  properly  be  yoked  to- 
gether. The  sentence  ought  to  be  entirely  reconstructed,  in 
accordance  with  the  ideas  brought  out  in  the  context. 

Permissible:  Sir,  I  will  take  my  belongings  and  my  departure. 

Here,  belongings  and  departure,  though  dissimilar  nouns, 
are  used  together  to  produce  a  whimsical  and  half  humorous 
effect. 

Bad:  Dickens's  cockney  characters  and  delicious  humor 
appealed  to  the  better  class  and  the  poor  man  alike. 

Better:  Dickens's  use  of  cockney  characters  and  his  delight- 
ful humor  appealed  to  the  higher  class  as  well  as  to 
the  lower. 

4.  Ideas  should  not  be  put  into  similar  form  unless  they 
are  intended  to  be  parallel. 

Confusing:  Her  keen  insight  and  sympathy  with  the  village 
people  with  her  wonderful  perceptive  powers  give  us  the 
humor  that  we  find  in  Adam  Bede  and  The  Mill  on  the 
Floss. 

Here  the  close  juxtaposition  of  two  prepositional  phrases 
introduced  by  with  is  awkward  and  obscure,  since  the  phrases, 
though  similar,  are  not  parallel. 

Better:  Her  wonderful  perceptive  powers  and  her  intense 
sympathy  with  the  village  people  give  us  the  humor  that 
we  find  in  Adam  Bede  and  The  Mill  on  the  Floss. 

EXERCISE 

Improve  the  structure  of  the  sentences  given  below:  — 

1.  The  balloon  rose  slowly,  steadily,  and  hardly  varied  from  a 
vertical  line. 

2.  Thackeray's  purpose  was  not  psychological,  but  rather  to 
write  a  social  satire. 

3.  The  chief  ingredients  of  the  salad  were  lettuce,  nuts,  cheese, 
and  a  few  chopped  olives  were  added. 

4.  She  is  bold,  daring,  and  cares  little  for  public  opinion. 

5.  Up  stairs  were  the  rooms  of  the  housekeeper,  servants,  and 
several  attics  and  lumber  rooms. 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  75 

6.  These  laws  have  been  passed  in  Massachusetts,  New  York, 
and  in  Rhode  Island. 

7.  He  is  required  to  make  himself  familiar  with  French,  Ger- 
man, and  with  one  other  modern  language. 

8.  He  asked  for  Hennequin's  The  Art  of  Playwriting,  Miss  Rep- 
plier's  The  Fireside  Sphinx,  and  I  noted  that  several  other 
volumes  were  requested  by  him. 

9.  He  wore  a  soft  hat,  a  flowing  tie,  and  his  hair  was  long,  as  a 
poet's  ought  to  be. 

10.  Some  of  my  friends  suggested  that  I  add  an  explanatory 
chapter,  others  that  I  leave  out  the  introduction,  and  there 
were  others  who  thought  I  had  better  rewrite  the  book  alto- 
gether. 

11.  By  this  press  the  edition  is  printed,  folded,  and  at  the  rate  of 
five  thousand  copies  an  hour. 

Coordination 

Clauses  should  be  coordinated  only  when  they  are  equal 
in  value. 

Children  and  illiterate  writers  habitually  express  them- 
selves in  compound  sentences.  They  do  not  weigh  values  and 
note  relations.  The  trained  writer  uses  compound  sentences 
only  when  he  wishes  to  indicate  an  approximate  equality  of 
rank  among  ideas.  The  following  compound  sentences  have 
good  reason  for  their  construction :  — 

(a)  The  rains  descended  and  the  floods  came. 

(6)  I  went,  as  he  requested,  but  I  found  that  I  was  obliged 

to  return  at  once, 
(c)  If  thine  enemy  be  hungry,  give  him  bread  to  eat;  and 

if  he  be  thirsty,  give  him  water  to  drink. 
Compound  sentences  are  sometimes  used  for  looseness  of 
structure  when  an  author  wishes  to  produce  an  effect  of  ex- 
treme familiarity  and  ease,  as  in  the  following  passage:  — 
I  walked  on  a  little,  buoyed  up,  as  one  is  on  such  occasions, 
with  a  sweet  soothing  of  self-satisfaction;  but  before  I 
had  got  to  the  end  of  the  bridge,  my  better  feelings  re- 
turned, and  I  burst  into  tears,  thinking  how  ungrateful 
I  had  been  to  my  good  aunt,  to  go  and  give  her  good  gift 
away  to  a  stranger,  that  I  had  never  seen  before,  and 


76  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

who  might  be  a  bad  man  for  aught  I  knew;  and  then  I 
thought  of  the  pleasure  my  aunt  would  be  taking  in 
thinking  that  I  —  I  myself,  and  not  another  —  would 
eat  her  nice  cake  —  and  what  I  should  say  to  her  the. 
next  time  I  saw  her  —  how  naughty  I  was  to  part  with 
her  pretty  present  —  and  the  odor  of  that  spicy  cake 
came  back  upon  my  recollection,  and  the  pleasure  and  the 
curiosity  I  had  taken  in  seeing  her  make  it  and  her  joy 
when  she  sent  it  to  the  oven,  and  how  disappointed  she 
would  feel  that  I  had  never  had  a  bit  of  it  in  my  mouth 
at  last  —  and  I  blamed  my  impertinent  spirit  of  alms- 
giving, and  out-of-place  hypocrisy  of  goodness,  and  above 
all  I  wished  never  to  see  the  face  again  of  that  insidious, 
good-for-nothing,  old  grey  imposter.  Charles  Lamb: 
A  Dissertation  upon  Roast  Pig. 

Note  :  For  a  further  discussion  of  the  relations  of  sentence 
elements,  see  under  Subordination  below. 

Subordination 

I.  In  general,  the  main  thought  in  a  sentence  should  be 
expressed  in  an  independent  clause,  and  the  less  important 
thoughts  should  be  expressed  in  subordinate  sentence  ele- 
ments, such  as  words,  phrases,  and  dependent  clauses. 

The  untrained  writer  is  inclined  to  make  no  discrimination 
as  to  the  relative  values  of  thoughts  in  a  sentence;  he  is  likely 
to  be  satisfied  with  a  crude,  illogical  style  in  which  finer  shades 
of  meaning  are  ignored.  Every  sentence  ought  to  be  carefully 
constructed  so  that  all  subordinate  ideas  are  expressed  in  sub- 
ordinate forms. 

Undesirable:  I  have  a  cat,  and  it  is  black  with  patches  of 
white  on  it. 

Here  the  main  thought  is  I  have  a  cat;  the  independent 
clause  following  and  is  of  such  small  importance  that  it  can 
very  properly  be  expressed  in  a  subordinate  form. 

Better:  I  have  a  black  and  white  cat. 

Undesirable:  The  waiter  was  a  tall  thin  young  man,  and  his 
name  was  George. 

Better:  The  waiter  was  a  tall  thin  young  man  named  George. 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  77 

Caution:  Untrained  writers  are  prone  to  use  the  com- 
pound sentence  too  frequently.  Good  sentence  structure 
requires  a  large  proportion  of  discriminating  subordination. 

2.  The  use  of  so  as  a  compounding  conjunction  is  not 
favored  by  the  most  careful  writers. 

The  use  of  so  as  a  conjunction,  though  not  actually  incor- 
rect, is  not  desirable;  it  produces  a  slovenly  effect. 

Loose:  He  cannot  come,  so  we  may  as  well  do  the  work  our- 
selves. 
Compact:  Since  he  cannot  come,  we  may  as  well  do  the  work 

ourselves. 
Undesirable:  I  thought  that  we  might  not  be  able  to  buy 

any  food,  so  I  brought  a  lunch  with  me. 
Better:  Thinking  that  we  might  not  be  able  to  buy  any  food, 
I  brought  a  lunch  with  me. 

EXERCISE 

Improve  the  structure  of  the  sentences  given  below:  — 

1.  They  went  home  by  another  route,  and  so  they  missed  meet- 
ing their  friends. 

2.  I  did  not  believe  that  it  would  rain,  so  I  did  not  take  my 
umbrella. 

3.  This  gateway  is  of  a  peculiarly  solid  style,  and  it  is  called  a 
pylon. 

4.  I  did  n't  care  for  his  methods,  but  I  wanted  to  please  my 
mother,  and  I  signed  for  six  lessons. 

5.  The  speaker  was  from  another  university,  and  he  was  a  very 
well-known  man  in  college  circles. 

6.  The  company  wishes  to  protect  its  own  interests,  and  be- 
sides, a  few  men  are  doubtless  employed  by  it  who  would  not 
be  above  revealing  the  secrets  of  the  process. 

7.  She  wished  to  create  a  good  impression,  and  so  she  purchased 
a  trunkful  of  finery. 

8.  I  closed  and  locked  my  desk,  and  then  I  went  into  the  hall  to 
see  what  the  trouble  was  about. 

9.  It  is  a  severe  denunciation  of  the  government,  and  is  written 
by  an  obscure  person  named  Tubbs. 

10.  The  men  employed  at  this  task  were  opposed  to  Roberts,  and 
thus  he  was  obliged  to  make  many  concessions. 


78  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

11.  The  dormitory  is  a  beautiful  building  of  stone,  and  it  is 
covered  with  ivy. 

12.  After  a  while  I  met  a  messenger  boy,  and  I  asked  him  how  to 
get  to  the  treasurer's  office. 

13.  She  is  more  ambitious  and  intelligent  than  the  other  girls, 
and  she  is  likely  to  be  promoted  sooner  than  they  are. 

The  Placing  of  Modifiers 

1.  In  general,  modifiers  should  be  placed  as  close  as  possi- 
ble to  the  words  that  they  modify. 

Incorrect:  She  had  earrings  in  her  ears  that  had  been  her 
grandmother's. 

Correct:  In  her  ears  she  had  earrings  that  had  been  her 
grandmother's. 

Undesirable:  The  great  hotel  was  close  at  hand,  which  had 
formerly  been  the  palace  of  Mr.  Gathergold. 

Better:  Close  at  hand  was  the  great  hotel,  which  had 
formerly  been  the  palace  of  Mr.  Gathergold. 

Caution  :  Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  placing 
of  the  adverbs  only,  ever,  merely,  nearly,  almost,  scarcely,  and 
hardly.  They  should  be  closely  joined  to  the  words  that  they 
modify. 

Bad:  I  only  went  there  last  week. 

Better:  I  went  there  only  last  week. 

Bad:  Do  you  ever  expect  to  hear  from  him? 

Better:  Do  you  expect  ever  to  hear  from  him? 

Bad:  That  is  the  saddest  tale  I  almost  ever  heard. 

Better:  That  is  almost  the  saddest  tale  I  ever  heard. 

2.  Where  a  number  of  modifying  clauses  and  phrases 
occur  in  the  same  sentence,  great  care  should  be  taken  in 
disposing  of  each  member,  so  that  the  sentence,  when  com- 
pleted, may  be  smooth  and  compact. 

Good  arrangement:  After  the  dinner-table  had  been  re- 
moved, the  hall  was  given  up  to  the  younger  members 
of  the  family,  who,  prompted  to  all  kinds  of  noisy  mirth 
by  the  Oxonian  and  Master  Simon,  made  its  old  walls 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  79 

ring  with  their  merriment,  as  they  played  at  romping 
games.  Washington  Irving:  The  Christmas  Dinner. 

Good  arrangement:  At  length,  in  the  beginning  of  May,  with 
the  help  of  some  of  my  acquaintances,  rather  to  improve 
so  good  an  occasion  for  neighborliness  than  from  any 
necessity,  I  set  up  the  frame  of  my  house.  Thoreau: 
Walden. 

3.  In  general,  the  device  of  placing  explanatory  phrases 

and  adverbial  clauses  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  is 

likely  to  result  in  compact  structure. 

Good  arrangement:  When,  at  length,  we  had  concluded  our 
examination,  and  the  intense  excitement  of  the  time  had 
in  some  measure  subsided,  Legrand,  who  saw  that  I  was 
dying  with  impatience  for  a  solution  of  this  most  extra- 
ordinary riddle,  entered  into  a  full  detail  of  all  the  cir- 
cumstances connected  with  it.   Poe  :  The  Gold  Bug. 

Good  arrangement:  One  September  day,  when  I  was  nearly 
at  the  end  of  a  summer  spent  in  a  village  called  Dunnet 
Landing,  on  the  Maine  coast,  my  friend  Mrs.  Todd,  in 
whose  house  I  lived,  came  home  from  a  long  solitary 
stroll  in  the  wild  pastures,  with  an  eager  look,  as  if  she 
were  just  starting  on  a  hopeful  quest  instead  of  return- 
ing. Jewett:  The  Queen's  Twin. 

Note  :  See  the  comment  on  the  Periodic  Sentence,  page  95. 

Caution  :  Placing  loose  modifiers  at  the  end  of  a  sentence 
usually  weakens  its  construction. 

Weak:  A  termagant  wife  may,  therefore,  be  considered  a 
tolerable  blessing  in  some  respects. 

Stronger:  A  termagant  wife  may,  therefore,  in  some  re- 
spects, be  considered  a  tolerable  blessing.  Irving:  Rip 
Van  Winkle. 

Bad:  It  was  unpardonable  folly  to  waste  so  much  time,  ac- 
cording to  their  idea  of  the  matter. 

Better:  According  to  their  idea  of  the  matter,  it  was  unpar- 
donable folly  to  waste  so  much  time. 

4.  As  a  rule,  modifiers  should  not  be  placed  between  the 
infinitive  and  its  sign,  the  preposition  to. 


80  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

The  "split  infinitive"  is  usually  an  undesirable  construc- 
tion. There  are,  however,  rare  instances  in  which  it  is  better  to 
divide  the  infinitive  than  to  make  use  of  a  roundabout  or  awk- 
ward sentence-form. 

Bad:  He  decided  to  carefully  analyze  the  specimen. 

Better:  He  decided  to  analyze  the  specimen  carefully. 

EXERCISE 

Reconstruct  the  following  sentences:  — 

1.  I  could  see  the  small  village  where  I  lived  in  the  distance. 

2.  It  is  impossible  to  correctly  comprehend  the  amount  of  work 
carried  on  in  this  department  without  the  assistance  of  facts 
and  statistics. 

3.  I  will  try  to  trace  my  experiences  through  the  year  now  pass- 
ing in  a  few  words. 

4.  He  will  go  when  the  weather  clears  in  an  automobile. 

5.  Evidently  there  was  some  village  hidden  from  our  sight  by  the 
hills  that  afforded  a  market  for  the  produce  that  came  from  so 
prosperous  a  region. 

6.  Also  on  a  weather  map  are  curved  lines  which  mark  off  all 
places  of  equal  barometric  pressure  into  separate  divisions. 

7.  One  has  only  to  think  of  Christmas  and  there  will  imme- 
diately spring  to  their  mind  a  picture  of  a  happy  family  with 
all  of  its  members  enjoying  a  feast  or  at  least  some  picture 
equally  as  happy. 

8.  College  spirit  will  arouse  a  discouraged  team,  when  properly 
shown. 

9.  In  another  part  of  the  room  was  a  cozy  corner,  which  is  liked 
by  almost  every  college  student,  covered  with  quite  a  number 
of  beautiful  sofa  pillows. 

10.  He  took  the  cat  into  the  yard  and  hung  it  from  a  tree  in  cold 
blood. 

11.  Dressed  in  his  corduroy  trousers  and  slouch  hat  with  a  heavy 
beard  nearly  covering  his  face  he  cannot  be  mistaken  in  any 
place. 

12.  A  little  boy  known  to  the  writer  in  his  eighteenth  month  was 
extremely  precocious  in  his  use  of  words. 

13.  While  there  have  been  films  manufactured  of  a  low  moral 
standard,  they  are  far  outnumbered  by  those  that  are  irre- 
proachable. 

14.  I  only  went  once  to  that  class. 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  81 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences,  correct  errors  of  construction:  — 

1.  The  hero  meets  Fortunato  and  tells  him  he  has  a  cask  of  wine 
he  wishes  him  to  pass  his  judgment  on;  in  order  to  make  sure 
he  will  not  refuse,  he  tells  him  that  he  can  get  some  one  else 
to  assist  him  in  judging  the  wine. 

2.  The  food  in  the  tireless  cooker  retains  its  heat  for  a  long  time, 
because  there  is  no  way  it  can  escape. 

3.  For  book  work,  little  has  been  done,  outside  of  getting  them. 

4.  Few  country  store-keepers  keep  clerks,  so  most  of  the  work  is 
done  by  him  alone. 

5.  You  must  be  very  careful  in  the  handling  of  a  gun ;  they  are  a 
useful  instrument  in  that  for  which  they  were  intended. 

6.  A  person's  course  in  the  high  school  should  include  those 
studies  which  will  help  them  in  their  work  in  the  future. 

7.  If  water  is  poured  on  a  duck's  back,  it  runs  off  immediately. 

8.  The  cat,  however,  soon  recovered  from  this  inhuman  act, 
and  Poe  himself  was  ashamed  of  it. 

9.  Graduates  will  receive  recognition  more  readily,  and  the  field 
of  opportunity  will  hold  her  doors  more  open  for  him. 

10.  When  traveling  alone  in  a  strange  part  of  the  country,  you 
are  generally  timid  and  uneasy,  but  this  will  soon  leave  you. 

11.  When  you  fill  the  salt-cellars,  don't  spill  any  of  it  on  the  table. 

12.  The  automobile  is  becoming  almost  indispensable;  they  are 
used  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world. 

13.  It  was  a  rule  in  camp  that  every  one  should  be  in  their  bunk 
at  ten  o'clock. 

14.  You  may  kill  your  engine  on  the  main  thoroughfare,  and  have 
to  hold  up  a  street-car  until  you  can  crank  it. 

15.  One  newspaper  function  which  must  not  be  overlooked  is  its 
position  as  middleman  between  the  government  and  the 
people. 

16.  At  the  moment  the  jumpers  leave  their  feet,  they  commence 
to  turn. 

17.  To  put  the  harness  on  a  horse,  approach  the  animal  on  the 
left  side,  and  when  about  midway  between  its  front  and  hind 
legs,  lift  it  and  slide  it  gently  across  his  back. 

18.  This  mill  is  located  at  the  falls  of  the  river  and  thus  gets 
water-power  to  run  it. 

19.  The  best  part  of  the  evening  is  the  walk  home,  for  about  that 


82  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

time  the  moon  is  full  and  the  air  crisp  enough  to  make  it 
pleasant. 

20.  Do  not  put  your  feet  upon  the  seats.  It  is  an  ungentlemanly 
act. 

21.  I  have  often  admired  Mr.  Harrison's  horse;  he  rides  very  well, 
too. 

22.  He  put  his  water-jug  upon  the  table,  and  took  large  draughts 
of  it. 

Dangling  Modifiers 

1.  An  introductory  participle  or  participial  phrase 
should  modify  the  subject  of  the  main  clause  in  the  sen- 
tence in  which  it  occurs. 

A  participle  which  introduces  a  sentence  or  a  division  of  a 
sentence,  but  which  does  not  logically  modify  the  subject  of  the 
chief  clause,  is  commonly  called  a  dangling  -participle.  Such  a 
participle  forms  a  most  undesirable  construction. 

Incorrect:  Turning  suddenly,  the  house  came  into  view  at 
some  distance  from  us. 

Grammatically,  turning  is  made  to  modify  house,  the  sud- 
ject  of  the  main  clause;  but  the  idea  of  a  house's  turning  sub- 
denly  is  absurd.  Turning  can,  however,  be  made  to  modify  we, 
with  reason  and  correctness;  hence  we  may  be  used  as  the  sub- 
ject of  the  main  clause. 

Correct:  Turning  suddenly,  we  saw  the  house  in  the  distance. 

The  sentence  below  contains  a  dangling  participial  phrase: 

Incorrect:  Climbing  a  hill,  the  lake  lay  glittering  before 
him. 

Since  a  lake  cannot  reasonably  be  spoken  of  as  climbing  a 
hill,  we  can  see  clearly  that  the  subject  of  the  sentence  should 
be  he.  He,  climbing  a  hill  makes  very  good  sense. 

Correct:  Climbing  a  hill,  he  saw  the  lake  glittering  before 
him. 

2.  An  introductory  gerund  phrase  should  refer  to  the 

subject  of  the  main  clause  in  the  sentence  in  which  it  occurs. 

A  gerund  phrase  which  introduces  a  sentence  or  a  division 
of  a  sentence,  but  which  does  not  logically  refer  to  the  subject 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  83 

of  the  main  clause,  is  called  a  dangling  gerund  phrase.   It  is 
under  all  circumstances  to  be  avoided. 

Inconect:  In  talking  to  my  companion,  the  fish  escaped 

from  my  hook. 
The  phrase  in  talking  refers  absurdly  to  the  subject  fish,  and 
is  obviously  a  dangling  modifier.  In  talking  may  in  reason  be  as- 
sociated with  the  pronoun  /,  which  is  a  suitable  subject  for  the 
sentence. 

Correct:  In  talking  to  my  companion,  I  let  the  fish  escape 

from  my  hook. 
Incorrect:  After  passing  through  the  fifth  grade,  my  mother 
took  me  with  her  to  Germany. 

Correct:  After  passing  through  the  fifth  grade,  I  went  with 
my  mother  to  Germany. 

3.  An  introductory  elliptical  clause  should  refer  to  the 
subject  of  the  main  clause  in  the  sentence  in  which  it 
occurs. 

An  elliptical  clause  is  one  from  which  the  subject  and  the 
predicate  have  been  omitted.  It  is  often  introduced  by  when 
or  while. 

Incorrect:  While  returning  from  his  work,  a  large  black  bear 
crossed  his  pathway  in  the  forest. 

Correct:  While  returning  from  his  work,  he  saw  a  large  black 
bear  cross  his  pathway  in  the  forest. 

Here  the  elliptical  clause  while  returning  from  work  is  made 
to  refer,  properly,  to  fie  and  not  to  bear.  It  is  therefore  nc 
longer  a  dangling  clause. 

Note:  The  elliptical  clause  should  be  used  with  caution, 
since  even  when  it  is  grammatically  correct,  it  is  likely  to  be 
awkward.  It  is  better  to  use  the  complete  clause,  as  in  the  sen- 
tence, "While  he  was  returning  from  his  work,  he  saw  a  large 
black  bear  cross  his  pathway  in  the  forest." 

Incorrect:  When  a  few  years  old,  the  family  moved  to  Chat- 
ham, and  Dickens  always  remembered  this  time  as  the 
happiest  days  of  his  life. 

Correct:  When  Charles  was  a  few  years  old,  his  family 
moved  to  Chatham;  Dickens  always  remembered  tins 


84  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

period  as  the  happiest  of  his  life.  [Or]  When  a  few  years 
old,  Dickens  went  with  his  family  to  Chatham;  he 
always  remembered  this  period  as  the  happiest  of  his 
life. 

Incorrect:  When  a  boy,  Dickens'  father  was  sent  to  prison 
for  debt. 

Correct:  When  Dickens  was  a  boy,  his  father  was  sent  to 
prison  for  debt. 

Incorrect:  Wash  out  the  garment  with  soap  and  cold  water. 
When  nicely  pressed  with  an  electric  iron,  you  cannot 
tell  that  an  accident  has  occurred. 

Correct:  Wash  the  garment  with  soap  and  cold  water. 
When  it  has  been  carefully  pressed  with  an  electric  iron, 
the  skirt  will  bear  no  indication  of  the  accident. 

EXERCISE 

Reconstruct  the  following  sentences:  — 

1.  Besides  wrecking  the  boiler-house,  one  life  was  lost. 

2.  Approaching  the  coal  dock  from  the  landward  side,  the  first 
thing  we  see  is  the  immense  coal  yard. 

3.  On  turning  around  and  examining  what  is  back  of  you,  a  bed 
is  seen. 

4.  When  safely  tucked  away  in  bed,  my  fright  somewhat  sub- 
sided. 

5.  Going  out  through  the  front  door,  a  busy  scene  meets  our 
sight. 

6.  Upon  going  to  bed  the  front  draft  should  be  closed. 

7.  I  arrived  at  a  farmhouse,  near  the  marsh,  where  I  put  my 
horse  when  hunting. 

8.  The  breeze  fairly  chilled  us,  after  having  suffered  with  the 
heat  in  the  city  but  a  few  hours  before. 

9.  Passing  through  the  different  cities,  Seattle  is  the  most  active. 

10.  On  ascending  the  throne,  Scotland  refused  to  do  homage  to 
the  new  king. 

11.  These  marks  tell  us  of  the  conditions  of  the  weather,  when 
reading  the  map. 

12.  Last  summer  while  spending  a  few  weeks  in  Wyoming,  the 
annual  broncho-busting  contest  was  held. 

13.  When  doing  the  same  work,  the  salaries  should  be  identical. 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  85 

14.  When  generally  speaking  of  college  spirit,  it  applies  to  the 
attitude  of  the  student  toward  athletic  activities. 

15.  In  considering  how  a  student's  room  should  be  furnished,  a 
very  important  fact  is  the  health  of  the  room. 

16.  We  cut  down  some  of  the  trees  making  a  path  through  the 
woods. 

17.  A  rug  or  carpet  adds  to  the  warmth  of  the  room  and  also 
deadens  the  sound  when  walking  around  the  room. 

18.  I  was  unfortunately  taken  ill,  compelling  me  to  lose  several 
weeks  of  work.  When  able  to  return,  a  large  amount  of  work 
was  to  be  made  up. 

19.  When  writing,  air  is  admitted  to  the  barrel  of  the  pen,  to 
replace  the  ink  by  means  of  this  cavity. 

20.  The  influence  of  the  five-cent  theater,  looking  at  it  superfi- 
cially, is,  perhaps,  harmless. 

21.  So  I  sat  there  for  more  than  an  hour,  till  the  sun  was  deep  in 
the  west,  doing  nothing  except  enjoying  the  beauty  of  the 
scene. 

22.  Looking  now  along  the  walls,  so  many  striking  things  are  seen 
that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  what  attracted  your  attention 
next. 

23.  Now  paying  attention  to  the  hill  immediately  and  about  one 
eighth  of  a  mile  in  front  of  you,  the  large  square  white  house 
and  a  red  barn  are  noticed  for  the  first  time. 

24.  On  talking  with  the  man  he  was  found  to  be  an  old  sailor. 

25.  Crude  oil,  it  is  known,  will  instantly  kill  vegetation,  and  it 
requires  two  or  three  years  to  regain  its  original  vitality,  I 
may  say,  after  being  saturated  with  crude  petroleum. 

Reference 

I.  Every  pronoun  or  pronominal  adjective  should  have 

its  antecedent  clearly  expressed. 

A  violation  of  this  rule  is  likely  to  produce  results  both  con- 
fusing and  annoying. 

Bad:  When  George  came  in,  he  asked  him  to  bring  him  a 
book  from  the  library,  but  he  said  that  he  was  too  busy. 
Such  a  sentence  is  hopelessly  obscure. 

Better:  When  his  brother  came  in,  Henry  said,  "George, 
will  you  bring  me  a  book  from  the  library?  " 


86  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

George  replied,  "I  am  too  busy."  [Or]  George  replied 
that  he  was  too  busy. 

Below  are  given  further  examples  of  weak  reference :  — 

Incorrect:  Do  not  speak  while  you  are  in  this  room;  it  is  not 
permitted. 

Correct:  Be  silent  while  you  are  in  this  room;  speaking  is  not 
permitted.   [Or]  Speaking  is  not  permitted  in  this  room. 

Incorrect:  The  mink  is  a  timid  animal,  and  they  are  difficult 
to  catch. 

Correct:  The  mink  is  a  timid  animal,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
catch.  [Or]  Mink  are  timid  animals,  and  they  are  difficult 
to  catch. 

Incorrect:  They  offered  to  reward  him,  but  he  said  that  he 
did  not  want  it. 

Correct:  They  offered  him  a  reward,  but  he  refused  it. 

2.  Nouns  to  which  frequent  reference  is  made  should  be 

repeated  often  enough  so  that  there  is  no  ambiguity  in  the 

use  of  pronouns. 

Thus,  in  a  long  passage  about  the  same  person  or  thing,  it  is 
well  to  repeat  the  noun  occasionally,  in  order  to  keep  it 
clearly  before  the  reader. 

3.  A  pronoun  should  not  be  made  to  refer  to  a  noun  in 
the  possessive  case. 

Awkward:  That  is  Harry's  dog;  he  will  take  it  home  at 
once. 

Better:  That  dog  belongs  to  Harry;  he  will  take  it  home  at 
once. 

Bad:  Meredith's  novels  have  the  advantage  over  most  of 

■     Ibsen's  plays  in  that  he  had  no  definite  propaganda. 

Better:  Meredith's  novels  have  the  advantage  over  most  of 
Ibsen's  plays  in  that  Meredith  had  no  definite  propa- 
ganda. 

4.  The  pronominal  adjectives  this  and  that  should  not  be 

vaguely  used. 

Bad:  He  was  greatly  discouraged,  and  this  made  his 
mother  apprehensive. 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  87 

Here  this  has  nothing  to  modify  or  adhere  to;  it  should  be 
eliminated  or  made  more  definite. 

Better:  He  was  greatly  discouraged,  and  this  fact  made  his 
mother  apprehensive. 

Still  better:  His  great  discouragement  made  his  mother 
apprehensive. 

Omissions 

I.  No  essential  word  which  is  not  specifically  implied 
should  be  left  out  of  a  sentence. 

If  a  word  is  omitted,  it  is  usually  supplied  from  the  first 
available  construction  earlier  in  the  sentence;  for  that  reason 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  substituted  construction  is 
grammatically  correct. 

Incorrect:  That  difficulty  never  has  been  settled  and  never 

can. 
The  last  part  of  this  sentence  depends  on  the  first  part  for 
its  verb  forms;  however,  the  form  settled  (or  has  been  settled) 
when  carried  over,  does  not  make  sense  with  the  auxiliary  can. 
It  is  obviously  incorrect  to  omit  the  word  which  ought  to 
be  combined  with  can  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the  sen- 
tence. 

Correct:  That  difficulty  never  has  been  settled  and  never 
can  be  settled.   [Or]  That  difficulty  never  has  been  set- 
tled, and  never  can  be. 
Incorrect:  Human  beings  have  and  do  inhabit  this  dreary 

country. 
Correct:  Human  beings  have  inhabited  and  still  do  inhabit 

this  dreary  country. 
Incorrect:  I  never  have  told  a  lie  and  never  shall. 
Correct:  I  never  have  told  a  lie  and  never  shall  tell  one. 
Incorrect:  The  leader  was  hanged  and  his  companions  im- 
prisoned. 

Correct:  The  leader  was  hanged  and  his  companions  were 
imprisoned. 

Caution:  A  single  form  of  the  verb  should  not  be  made  to 
serve  as  both  a  principal  and  an  auxiliary  verb. 


88  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

Incorrect:  The  manager  is  competent  and  admired  by  all  his 

men. 
Correct:  The  manager  is  competent,  and  is  admired  by  all 

his  men. 

2.  An  article  should  not  be  omitted  before  a  noun  unless 
that  noun  is  intended  to  be  understood  as  identical  with 
one  preceding. 

Incorrect:  The  book  and  magazine  could  be  seen  lying  on  the 
grass. 

Plainly,  a  book  is  not  the  same  thing  as  a  magazine;  two 
separate  objects  are  evidently  intended. 

Correct:  The  book  and  the  magazine  could  be  seen  lying  on 
the  grass. 

Incorrect:  A  doctor  and  lawyer  were  present  on  that  occa- 
sion. 

Correct:  A  doctor  and  a  lawyer  were  present  on  that  occasion. 

3.  A  preposition  should  usually  be  inserted  before  a 
noun  indicative  of  time. 

In  colloquial  discourse  there  is  a  tendency  to  omit  the 
prepositions  that  should  precede  nouns  of  time. 

Incorrect:  Monday  I  went  to  call  on  a  friend  of  mine. 

Correct:  On  Monday  I  went  to  call  on  a  friend  of  mine. 

Incorrect:  The  fall  of  the  Bastille  occurred  July  14,  1789. 

Correct:  The  fall  of  the  Bastille  occurred  on  July  14,  1789. 

Exceptions:  The  following  expressions  and  those  similar  do 
not  take  the  preposition  with  the  noun:  last  year,  last  Thursday, 
next  week,  this  morning,  that  afternoon,  some  day,  any  day. 

4.  Pronouns  should  not  be  omitted  from  any  form  of 
discourse. 

Some  letter-writers  make  a  practice  of  leaving  out  pro- 
nouns, —  through  a  desire,  no  doubt,  to  save  time  and  to  pro- 
duce an  effect  of  businesslike  brevity. 

Crude:  Received  letter  to-day.    Thanks  for  information. 

Will  lay  same  before  counsel  at  once. 
Correct:  I  received  your  letter  to-day.  Thank  you  for  your 
information,  which  I  shall  lay  before  our  counsel  at  once. 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  89 

5.  Comparisons  should  be  completed,  and  not  left  to  the 

imagination  of  the  reader. 

Incomplete:  I  decided  to  make  use  of  his  plan,  since  I 
thought  that  course  would  be  better. 

Better  than  what?  The  comparison  should  be  made  clear. 

Complete:  I  decided  to  make  use  of  his  plan,  since  I  thought 
that  course  would  be  better  than  the  one  upon  which  we 
had  previously  agreed. 

EXERCISE 

Rewrite    the    following    sentences,    making    all    necessary- 
changes  :  — 

1.  He  never  has  and  never  will  be  admitted  to  that  group. 

2.  They  have  already  and  will  in  the  future  treat  their  relatives 
with  great  consideration. 

3.  I  was  accustomed  to  that  sort  of  thing  and  the  others  also. 

4.  Human  beings  have  and  do  inhabit  this  dreary  country. 

5.  Mrs.  Holmes  is  a  delightful  woman,  and  her  daughters  inter- 
esting, agreeable  girls. 

6.  He  has  a  deep  interest  and  wide  knowledge  of  the  subject  he 
teaches. 

7.  Thanks  for  book;  will  return  it  soon. 

8.  We  would  be  glad  to  entertain  yourself  and  guests. 

9.  I  believe  this  town  is  fully  as  large  or  larger  than  the  one  we 
just  came  through. 

10.  They  were  surprised  to  see  the  way  he  succeeded  in  collecting 
funds. 

11.  He  was  waylaid  by  robbers,  and  his  money  taken  from  him. 

12.  She  is  one  of  the  noblest  if  not  the  noblest  American  women. 

13.  I  have  no  admiration  or  confidence  in  such  methods. 

14.  She  has  never  learned  to  do  her  work  well,  and  I  am  afraid 
she  never  will. 

15.  Tuesdays  and  Thursdays  he  goes  into  town,  and  Saturdays  he 
goes  to  visit  his  mother. 

16.  Scientists  are  now  convinced  of  the  greater  value  of  the  new 
theory. 

17.  He  has  given  money  for  a  library,  town-hall,  park  pavilion, 
and  fountain. 

18.  The  accident  occurred  the  first  day  of  the  year. 


90  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

Transition 

1.  The  first  sentence  in  a  discourse  should  not  refer  to 
the  words  of  the  title. 

Incorrect: 

Abraham  Lincoln 

He  was  born  in  1809,  and,  for  the  first  few  years  of  his 
life,  etc.,  etc. 

Correct: 

Abraham  Lincoln 

Abraham  Lincoln  was  born  in  1809,  and,  for  the  first 
few  years  of  his  life,  etc.,  etc. 

2.  Transitions  between  paragraphs,  sentences,  and  parts 
of  sentences  should,  in  general,  be  definitely  and  accurately 
expressed,  so  that  the  discourse  may  possess  unity  and 
solidity. 

Carelessness  with  transitions  is  a  mark  of  crudity.  The 
trained  writer  gives  scrupulous  attention  to  linking  each  part 
of  his  discourse  to  some  previous  part,  in  order  to  preserve  a 
continuous  chain  of  thought.  The  connecting  of  parts  of  sen- 
tences, whole  sentences,  or  paragraphs  can  be  accomplished  in 
one  or  more  of  the  following  three  ways:  — 

(a)  By  reference,  which  is  produced  by  the  use  of  pronouns, 
demonstrative  adjectives,  and  other  expressions  that  re- 
instate ideas  previously  put  into  words. 

(6)  By  repetition,  or  the  reiterating  of  some  important  or 
striking  word  or  group  of  words  from  sentence  to  sen- 
tence. 

(c)  By  transitional  expressions,  designed  for  purposes  of 
connection.  Below  is  given  a  list  of  such  expressions:  — 

yet  on  the  contrary 

still  of  course 

nevertheless  on  the  other  hand 

however  it  is  true 

moreover  for  example 

further  in  other  words 

likewise  that  is  to  say 

indeed  in  this  manner 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  91 


also 

in  the  same  way 

thus 

in  the  meantime 

now 

it  must  be  confessed 

too. 

it  may  be  objected 

again 

it  cannot  be  denied 

hence 

for  this  reason 

therefore 

in  any  case 

then 

at  any  rate 

for 

at  all  events 

but 

as  I  have  said 

furthermore 

in  addition  to 

after  all 

as  has  been  noted 

in  short 

in  any  event 

at  least 

in  fact 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  selection  note  the  devices  used  for  transi- 
tion: — 

Charles,  however,  had  one  advantage,  which,  if  he  had  used 
it  well,  would  have  more  than  compensated  for  the  want 
of  stores  and  money,  and  which,  notwithstanding  his 
mismanagement,  gave  him,  during  some  months,  a  supe- 
riority in  the  war.  His  troops  at  first  fought  much  better 
than  those  of  the  Parliament.  Both  armies,  it  is  true, 
were  almost  entirely  composed  of  men  who  had  never 
seen  a  field  of  battle.  Nevertheless,  the  difference  was 
great.  The  parliamentary  ranks  were  filled  with  hirelings 
whom  want  and  idleness  had  induced  to  enlist.  Hamp- 
den's regiment  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  best;  and  even 
Hampden's  regiment  was  described  by  Cromwell  as  a 
mere  rabble  of  tapsters  and  serving  men  out  of  place. 
The  royal  army,  on  the  other  hand,  consisted  in  great 
part  of  gentlemen,  high  spirited,  ardent,  accustomed  to 
consider  dishonor  as  more  terrible  than  death,  accus- 
tomed to  fencing,  to  the  use  of  firearms,  to  bold  riding, 
and  to  manly  and  perilous  sport,  which  has  well  been 
called  the  image  of  war.  Such  gentlemen,  mounted  on 
their  favorite  horses,  and  commanding  little  bands,  com- 
posed of  their  younger  brothers,  grooms,  gamekeepers, 
and  huntsmen,  were,  from  the  very  first  day  on  which 


92  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

they  took  the  field,  qualified  to  play  their  part  with 
credit  in  a  skirmish.  The  steadiness,  the  prompt  obedi- 
ence, the  mechanical  precision  of  movement,  which  are 
characteristic  of  the  regular  soldiers,  these  gallant  volun- 
teers never  attained.  But  they  were  at  first  opposed  to 
enemies  as  undisciplined  as  themselves,  and  far  less 
active,  athletic,  and  daring.  For  a  time,  therefore,  the 
Cavaliers  were  successful  in  almost  every  encounter. 
Macaulay:  History  of  England. 

Emphasis 

1.  The  beginning  and  the  end  of  a  sentence  or  a  clause 
offer  the  best  opportunities  for  emphasis. 

(a)  On,  always  homeward,  but  at  its  own  pace,  goes  the 
Russian  monster.  Carlyle. 

(b)  There,  graceful  and  smiling,  dressed  immaculately  in 
the  well-known  uniform  of  the  Dragoons,  stood  May- 
nard  Foxwell. 

Note:  The  theory  that  a  preposition  should  never  end  a 
sentence  is  due  to  the  working  of  the  rule  given  above.  In 
general,  a  preposition  is  not  an  emphatic  word,  and  therefore 
does  not  give  an  appropriate  finish  to  a  sentence;  nevertheless, 
some  verbs  combined  with  prepositional  particles  may  con- 
clude a  sentence  very  forcefully. 

(a)  I  did  not  come  here  to  be  made  a  target  of. 

(6)  That  is  a  very  foolish  matter  to  argue  about. 

(c)  He  is  the  last  person  that  I  should  have  thought  of. 

2.  A  word  or  a  phrase  demanding  special  emphasis  may 
be  transposed  from  its  natural  order. 

(a)  He  it  was  who  gave  voice  to  that  suspicion. 
(&)  Go  they  must  and  shall. 

3.  A  conditional  phrase  or  clause  which  needs  special 

emphasis  should  be  put  last  in  the  sentence. 

This  fact  is  due  to  the  custom  of  throwing  explanatory 
matter  toward  the  first  of  the  sentence,  where,  unless  it  is  brief 
and  striking,  it  is  regarded  as  merely  preliminary  to  the  idea 
which  is  to  follow. 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  93 

I  will  consider  your  proposition,  —  if  you  are  entirely 
sincere. 

4.  A  periodic  sentence  is  usually  more  emphatic  than  a 
loose  sentence. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  periodic  sentence  see  page  95.  An 
example  is  given  below:  — 

The  sudden  influx  of  so  much  wealth,  and  that,  too,  in  so 
transferable  a  form,  among  a  party  of  reckless  adven- 
turers little  accustomed  to  the  possession  of  money,  had 
its  natural  effect. 

5.  An  arrangement  in  the  order  of  climax  is  usually 
emphatic. 

(a)  The  bad  government  of  the  city  is  responsible  for  all 
this  idleness,  poverty,  wretchedness,  and  crime. 

(b)  Property,  life,  liberty,  and  honor  are  at  stake. 

6.  A  balanced  sentence  is  emphatic. 

(a)  To  err  is  human;  to  forgive,  divine. 

(b)  A  false  balance  is  an  abomination  to  the  Lord;  but  a 
just  weight  is  his  delight. 

7.  Repetition  may  occasionally  be  used  for  emphasis. 

There  is  so  much  in  such  a  hope  that  by  it  we  are  saved;  I  do 
not  mean  from  suffering  and  punishment,  but  saved  from 
baseness,  saved  from  the  dominion  of  sense  and  sin,  saved 
from  worldliness,  from  selfishness,  from  ungodliness. 

8.  Tautology  is  sometimes,  though  rarely,  a  legitimate 
device  for  obtaining  emphasis. 

(a)  This  is  the  pure  unadulterated  truth. 
(6)  The  public  was  shocked,  horrified,  and  appalled  at  this 
revelation  of  his  perfidy. 

9.  Figures  of  speech  are  usually  emphatic.    See  Figures 
of  Speech,  page  157. 

10.  It  is  sometimes  permissible  to  italicize  a  word  or 
phrase  that  needs  emphasis. 


94  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

(a)  Yes,  the  injury  I  can  forgive;  the  falseness  never. 
Meredith:  Diana  of  the  Crossways. 

(6)  "But,"  said  the  Prefect,  a  little  discomposed,  "I  am 
perfectly  willing  to  take  advice,  and  to  pay  for  it.  I  would 
really  give  fifty  thousand  francs  to  any  one  who  would 
aid  me  in  the  matter.  Poe  :  The  Purloined  Letter. 

Note:  See  Italics,  Rule  6,  pages  35-36. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences,  note  the  devices  used  for  em- 
phasis: — 

1.  Great  is  the  mystery  of  space,  greater  the  mystery  of  time. 

2.  Now  is  the  accepted  time. 

3.  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none,  but  such  as  I  have,  that  give  I 
unto  you. 

4.  I  am  astonished,  I  am  shocked,  to  hear  such  principles  con- 
fessed, to  hear  them  avowed  in  this  house  and  in  this  country. 

5.  He  remits  his  splendor,  but  retains  his  magnitude;  and  pleases 
more  though  he  dazzles  less. 

6.  He  defended  him  living,  amidst  the  clamors  of  his  enemies; 
and  praised  him  dead,  amidst  the  silence  of  his  friends. 

7.  The  work  which  had  been  begun  by  Henry,  the  murderer  of 
his  wives,  was  continued  by  Somerset,  the  murderer  of  his 
brother,  and  completed  by  Elizabeth,  the  murderer  of  her 
guest. 

8.  So  spake  the  Apostate  Angel,  though  in  pain. 

9.  Out  burst  all  with  one  accord. 

10.  A  proverb  is  the  wisdom  of  many  and  the  wit  of  one. 

11.  When  reason  is  against  a  man,  he  will  be  against  reason. 

12.  It  is  the  spirit  of  the  English  constitution  which,  infused 
through  the  mighty  mass,  pervades,  feeds,  unites,  invigor- 
ates, vivifies,  every  part  of  the  empire,  down  to  the  minutest 
member. 

13.  That  such  a  man  should  have  written  one  of  the  best  books  in 
the  world  is  strange  enough. 

14.  Of  the  talents  that  ordinarily  raise  men  to  eminence  as 
writers,  Boswell  had  absolutely  none. 

15.  These  qualities,  if  he  [Boswell]  had  been  a  man  of  sense  and 
virtue,  would  scarcely  of  themselves  have  sufficed  to  make 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  95 

him  conspicuous;  but  because  he  was  a  dunce,  a  parasite,  and 
a  coxcomb,  they  have  made  him  immortal. 

EXERCISE 

How  can  the  following  sentences  be  made  more  emphatic? 

1.  The  last  days  of  her  sojourn  in  England  were  embittered  by 
the  neglect  of  her  friends,  to  some  extent. 

2.  The  wall  fell  down  with  a  great  crash. 

3.  She  might  have  been  happier,  though  not  more  comfortable. 

4.  Revenge  his  foul  and  most  unnatural  murder,  if  ever  thou 
didst  thy  dear  father  love. 

5.  The  cry  rose  loud. 

6.  He  was  inconsiderate,  but  not  cruel. 

7.  He  did  not  attach  sufficient  importance  to  the  truth,  unfor- 
tunately for  the  cause  he  advocated. 

8.  When  men  do  revile  you  and  persecute  you,  and  speak 
all  manner  of  evil  against  you  falsely  for  my  sake,  ye  are 
blessed. 

9.  She  was  so  terrified  that  her  alarm  could  not  be  soothed  by 
any  explanations  or  apologies. 

10.  They  have  been  informed  of  the  fact  most  certainly. 

11.  The  next  thing  is  to  discover  the  thief;  it  is  also  the  most 
important. 

12.  He  had  come  to  speak  to  her,  and  he  would  speak  to  her. 

13.  She  could  never  be  guilty  of  rudeness  for  a  moment. 

14.  Venturius  enjoyed  the  light  of  the  Gospel  and  the  favor  of 
men. 

15.  What  pen  can  describe  the  agonies,  the  lamentations,  the 
tears,  the  animated  remonstrances  of  the  unfortunate 
prisoners? 

16.  He  has  lost  his  honor,  his  health,  and  his  money. 

17.  The  Puritans  hated  bear-baiting,  not  because  it  gave  pain  to 
the  bear,  but  because  the  spectators  were  pleased  by  it. 

Periodic  and  Loose  Sentences 

I .  A  periodic  sentence  is  one  that  cannot  express  a  com- 
plete thought  if  a  period  is  inserted  at  any  point  before  the 
end  is  reached. 

As  soon  as  the  young  ladies  had  discussed  the  orange  and 


96  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

the  glass  of  wine  which  formed  the  ordinary  conclusion 
of  the  dismal  banquets  at  Mr.  Osborne's  house,  the  sig- 
nal to  make  sail  for  the  drawing-room  was  given.  Thack- 
eray :  Vanity  Fair. 

In  this  sentence  the  sense  would  be  quite  incomplete  if  any 
of  the  words  toward  the  last  were  cut  off  from  the  preceding 
part.  The  sentence  is  periodic.  All  the  explanatory  material  is 
thrown  to  the  first  of  the  sentence,  and  the  assertive  clause  is 
given  an  important  place  at  the  conclusion.  The  effect  of  a 
reversion  of  this  situation  is  shown  below. 

2.  A  loose  sentence  is  one  that  can  express  a  complete 

thought  even  though  a  period  be  inserted  at  some  point 

before  the  end  is  reached. 

The  signal  to  make  sail  for  the  drawing-room  was  given  as 
soon  as  the  young  ladies  had  discussed  the  orange  and 
the  glass  of  wine  which  formed  the  ordinary  conclusion 
of  the  dismal  banquets  at  Mr.  Osborne's  house. 

Here  a  full  and  complete  sentence  is  formed  if  a  period  is 
inserted  after  given:  The  signal  to  make  sail  for  the  drawing-room 
was  given.  The  explanatory  material  is  tin-own  to  the  last  of 
the  sentence  (as  it  stands).  This  latter  part  may,  as  far  as  com- 
plete sense  is  concerned,  be  cut  off  from  the  rest. 

3.  The  effect  of  periodic  construction  is,  in  general,  to 
produce  a  well-organized,  compact,  and  dignified  sentence. 

4.  The  close  juxtaposition  of  a  number  of  periodic  sen- 
tences is  likely  to  make  a  passage  appear  self-conscious, 
heavy,  and  pompous.  As  a  rule,  periodic  sentences  should 
be  interspersed  with  loose. 

5.  In  general,  loose  construction  produces  a  careless, 

stringy,  or  even  incoherent  sentence.    See  under  Unity, 

pages  67-68. 

Nevertheless,  a  loose  sentence  may  be  well  constructed,  and 
may  produce  a  very  pleasant  effect  of  ease  and  conversational 
familiarity.   See  under  Coordination,  pages  75-76. 

6.  The  loose  sentence  may  be  used  where  sonorousness 
and  dignity  are  not  particularly  desired.    It  ought,  how- 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE  97 

ever,  to  be  carefully  constructed.  In  any  case,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  intersperse  loose  sentences  with  periodic. 

EXERCISE 

Distinguish  between  loose  and  periodic  sentences.   Reverse 
the  construction  where  such  a  change  seems  desirable. 

1.  He  had  given  Mr.  Jaffrey  no  small  amount  of  trouble  if  the 
truth  must  be  told. 

2.  Feeling  myself  to  be  on  unfamiliar  ground,  I  suppressed  my 
criticism. 

3.  I  shrink  from  the  responsibility  of  allowing  Johnny  to  call  me 
father,  when  I  think  of  the  life  he  led  his  mother  and  Susan 
during  the  first  eighteeen  months  after  his  arrival. 

4.  Two  or  three  times,  while  laying  aside  her  finery  and  arrang- 
ing her  more  humble  attire,  she  paused  to  take  a  look  at  the 
marriage  certificate. 

5.  Eleanor  accepted  the  situation  philosophically  after  the  ex- 
citement was  over. 

6.  One  morning  as  I  was  passing  through  Boston  Common, 
which  lies  between  my  home  and  my  office,  I  met  a  strange 
looking  gentleman. 

7.  Glancing  cautiously  over  his  shoulder  and  tapping  himself 
significantly  on  the  forehead,  Mr.  Sewall  said  in  a  low  voice, 
"Room  to  Let,  —  Unfurnished!" 

8.  He  reminded  me  of  Alfred  de  Musset's  blackbird,  which, 
with  its  yellow  beak  and  sombre  plumage,  looked  like  an 
undertaker  eating  an  omelet. 

9.  The  question  was  a  very  simple  one,  superficially  considered. 

10.  So  it  became  all  at  once  the  fashion,  without  any  preconcerted 
agreement,  to  speak  of  Van  Twiller  as  a  man  under  a  cloud, 
just  as  everybody  suddenly  takes  to  wearing  square-toed 
boots,  or  to  drawing  his  neckscarf  through  a  ring. 

11.  Birth  made  him  a  gentleman  and  the  rise  of  real  estate  made 
him  a  millionaire. 

12.  He  resolved  to  seek  his  enemy,  finding  himself  in  no  defi- 
ciency of  either  health  or  spirits. 

REFERENCES 

Bakee,  and  Abbott.   English  Composition,  pp.  117-42. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.  Composition  Oral  and  Written,  pp.  94-125. 


98  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

Baldwin,  C.  S.    The  Expository  Paragraph  and  Sentence,  pp.  1-28. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Writing  and  Speaking,  pp.  184-211. 

Canby,  H.  S.,  and  others.  English  Composition  in  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice, pp.  113-50. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.  Exercises  in  Rhetoric  and  English  Composition, 
pp.  91-152. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.   Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  58-156. 

Donnelly,  F.  P.   Imitation  and  Analysis,  pp.  9-45. 

Espenshade,  A.  H.  Essentials  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  181- 
283. 

Fulton,  Edward.  English  Prose  and  Composition,  pp.  28-49. 

Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold.  Manual  of  Composition  and 
Rhetoric,  pp.  311-44. 

Gentjng,  J.  F.    The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  311-55. 

Herrick  and  Damon.  New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools, 
pp.  129-99. 

Hill,  A.  S.  Beginnings  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  pp.  364-78. 

Kimball,  L.  G.  Structure  of  the  English  Sentence. 

Kittredge,  G.  L.   Advanced  English  Grammar,  pp.  183-226. 

Linn,  J.  W.    The  Essentials  of  English  Composition,  pp.  42-85. 

Lockwood,  S.  E.  H.  Lessons  in  English,  pp.  179-221. 

Newcomer  and  Seward.   Rhetoric  in  Practice,  pp.  104-35. 

Pearson,  H.  G.    The  Principles  of  Composition,  pp.  83-146. 

Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  85-160. 

Thorndike,  A.  H.  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  pp.  171-253. 

Waddy,  Virginia.  Elements  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  9-105. 

Webster,  W.  F.   English:  Cojnposition  and  Literature,  pp.  200-34. 

Wendell,  Barrett.  English  Composition,  pp.  76-113. 

Williams,  William.  Composition  and  Rhetoric  by  Practice,  pp.  1-19. 

7.  PARAGRAPHS 
Introductory 

In  the  history  of  writing,  the  sign  ^[  was  used  when  the 
author  wished  to  indicate  the  beginning  of  a  new  idea.  Be- 
tween two  of  these  signs  only  one  idea  was  discussed.  For 
this  old  typographical  device  (now  retained  only  in  correct- 
ing proof)  modern  usage  substitutes  a  blank  space,  inden- 
tion, or  indentation,  at  the  beginning  of  the  line  on  which 
the  new  topic  commences. 

The  paragraph  is  therefore  a  convenient  mechanical  de- 
vice to  set  off  clearly  one  topic  from  another  and  to  assist 


PARAGRAPHS  99 

the  reader  in  perceiving  the  different  steps  in  the  progress 
of  the  author's  thought.  Such  an  obvious  break  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  written  words  is,  then,  an  external  and  visi- 
ble sign  of  a  real  but  otherwise  invisible  change  of  thought, 
involving  either  the  introduction  of  new  subject-matter, 
or  an  indication  of  the  relation  of  topics,  points,  questions, 
or  propositions  in  the  thesis,  discourse,  essay,  argument,  or 
narrative.  It  follows  from  this  conception  of  the  use  of  the 
paragraph  that  its  function  is  to  indicate  relatively  large 
changes  in  the  progress  of  thinking,  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  by  which  the  sentence  indicates  progress  of  single  or 
simple  ideas.  As  thoughts  expressed  in  sentences  together 
build  up  paragraphs,  so  topics  or  complex  inclusive  ideas 
together  build  up  an  entire  theme  or  essay.  The  single 
word  expresses  the  unit  of  thought;  the  sentence  makes 
that  unit  active  in  an  independent  manner;  the  paragraph 
brings  the  active  idea  into  organic  connection  with  other 
ideas  significantly  related  to  it. 

In  writing  and  in  printing  we  find  the  paragraph  in  two 
different  forms  which,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  may  be 
considered  separately. 

1.  The  isolated  or  independent  paragraph. 

2.  The  related,  associated,  or  organic  paragraph. 

The  Isolated  or  Independent  Paragraph 

Under  certain  circumstances  it  is  either  necessary  or  con- 
venient to  write  all  that  one  has  to  say  on  a  topic  within  the 
limits  of  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  words.  In  newspapers 
we  frequently  find  reports  of  events,  accidents,  meetings, 
and  lectures  printed  in  a  single  brief  paragraph;  and  in 
classes  in  composition  the  amount  of  written  work  that 
is  prescribed  as  an  exercise  is  limited  to  a  similarly  brief 
statement  of  a  restricted  subject  or  a  single  topic  which  is 
but  one  phase  of  a  larger  subject. 


100  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

In  writing  paragraphs  of  this  nature,  the  student  should 
bear  in  mind  the  following  considerations :  — 

i.  While  this  brief  method  of  treatment  is  often  re- 
quired by  space  restrictions  in  the  newspaper,  by  the  in- 
significance of  the  subject,  or  by  the  limitations  of  the 
student's  ability  and  time,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
there  are  many  subjects  which  cannot  be  treated  in  so  brief 
a  space  or  in  so  summary  a  fashion.  The  student  should 
therefore  guard  against  the  habit  of  thinking  of  a  subject 
only  to  the  extent  of  the  average  isolated  paragraph,  and 
against  the  habit  of  writing  too  frequent  compositions  of 
such  an  arbitrary  and  artificial  length.  A  good  runner 
requires  endurance  for  a  cross-country  run  as  well  as  skill 
for  a  hundred-yard  dash. 

2.  The  writer  should  guard  against  the  tendency  to  fall 
into  a  stereotyped  form  of  structure  for  the  isolated  para- 
graph. He  should  particularly  avoid  writing  always  as  if 
the  formula  for  such  a  paragraph  were  necessarily:  Intro- 
duction +  Body  +  Conclusion. 

3.  Unity  of  subject-matter  and  of  tone  should  be  pre- 
served. In  so  short  a  treatment  of  a  topic,  the  student 
must  reconcile  himself  to  omitting  much,  and  must  confine 
himself  to  the  significant,  outstanding  features  of  his  sub- 
ject. The  irrelevant,  the  discursive,  and  the  illustrative 
must  be  omitted  in  the  paragraph,  —  unless  there  is  some- 
thing striking  or  unusually  significant  which  would  tend  to 
give  the  item  news  value  or  add  to  the  reader's  interest  in 
the  subject  as  a  whole.  It  must  be  remembered  that,  when  a 
subject  is  seen  from  a  distance  or  is  reproduced  in  miniature, 
details  disappear  even  if  they  are  in  themselves  interesting. 

4.  Emphasis  must  be  maintained  by  an  effective  open- 
ing or  conclusion,  and  frequently  by  both.  The  strategic 
points  of  a  paragraph  are  the  beginning  and  the  end. 
Therefore :  — 


PARAGRAPHS  101 

(a)  Begin  with  an  important  idea  vigorously  ex- 
pressed. 

(b)  Avoid  the  too  frequent  use  of  participial  intro- 
ductions, or  of  modifiers  placed  before  your  sub- 
ject in  the  first  sentence  of  the  paragraph. 

(c)  Make  your  opening  and  closing  sentences  brief, 
clear,  precise,  and  to  the  point. 

(d)  Avoid  the  loosely  constructed  or  the  involved 
sentence. 

(e)  Try  to  be  as  economical  of  words  as  you  would 
be  in  writing  a  night-letter  where  every  word 
must  be  made  to  do  its  full  duty. 

The  Related  or  Organic  Paragraph 

The  related  or  organic  paragraph  is  a  necessary  struc- 
tural part  of  the  complete  treatment  of  an  extensive  sub- 
ject. It  may  consist  of  one  sentence  or  of  many.  It  may 
be  short  or  long.  Its  nature  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
topic  which  it  is  discussing.  Briefly,  the  related  or  organic 
paragraph  has  the  following  six  uses :  — 
I .  The  Topic  Paragraph. 

1.  To  explain,  expound,  discuss,  or  consider  a  topic, 
question,  or  proposition  which  is  part  of  the  com- 
paratively extended  or  complicated  subject-matter 
of  a  theme,  thesis,  discourse,  exposition,  or  explana- 
tion. Usually  when  the  subject-matter  is  compli- 
cated, the  writer  divides  it,  for  purposes  of  conven- 
ience and  clearness  in  writing,  into  a  number  of 
subordinate  related  topics.  Each  of  these  topics  will 
occupy  at  least  one  paragraph. 

2.  Somewhere  in  the  paragraph  the  topic  under  consid- 
eration will  usually  be  definitely  stated  in  what  has 
come  to  be  called  the  topic  sentence.  This  sentence 
may  come  either  at  the  beginning,  in  the  middle,  or 


102  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

at  the  end  of  the  paragraph.  Occasionally  the  topic 
will  not  be  specifically  expressed  in  a  single  sentence ; 
but  even  in  cases  where  the  topic  is  implicit  in  the 
whole  paragraph  and  merely  suggested,  it  must  be 
capable  of  expression  in  a  single  sentence. 
3.  The  following  examples  show  how  the  topic  sentence 
may  be  used  with  effect :  — 

(a)  Topic  sentence  as  introduction  :  — 

To  strong,  susceptible  characters  the  music  of  na- 
ture is  not  confined  to  sweet  sounds.  The  defiant 
scream  of  the  hawk  circling  aloft,  the  wild  whinny  of 
the  loon,  the  whooping  of  the  crane,  the  booming  of  the 
bittern,  the  vulpine  bark  of  the  eagle,  the  loud  trum- 
peting of  the  migratory  geese  sounding  down  out  of 
the  midnight  sky;  or  by  the  sea-shore,  the  coast  of  New 
Jersey  or  Long  Island,  the  wild  crooning  of  the  flocks 
of  gulls,  repeated,  continued  by  the  hour,  swirling 
sharp  and  shrill,  rising  and  falling  like  the  wind  in  a 
storm,  as  they  circle  above  the  beach,  or  dip  to  the 
dash  of  the  waves  —  are  much  more  welcome  in  cer- 
tain moods  than  any  and  all  mere  bird-melodies,  in 
keeping  as  they  are  with  the  shaggy  and  untamed  fea- 
tures of  ocean  and  woods,  and  suggesting  something 
like  the  Richard  Wagner  music  in  the  ornithological 
orchestra.  John  Burroughs:  Birds  and  Poets. 

(b)  Topic  sentence  in  body  of  paragraph :  — 

So  much  then,  for  the  charge  of  caricature:  it  is  all  a 
matter  of  degree.  It  all  depends  upon  the  definition  of 
art,  and  upon  the  effect  made  upon  the  world  by  the 
characters  themselves.  If  they  live  in  loving  memory, 
they  must,  in  the  large  sense,  be  true.  Thus  we  come 
back  to  the  previous  statement:  Dickens'  people  live 
—  are  known  by  their  words  and  their  ways  all  over 
the  civilized  world.  No  collection  of  mere  grotesques 
could  ever  bring  this  to  pass.  Prick  any  typical  creation 
of  Dickens  and  it  runs  blood,  not  sawdust.  And  just  in 
proportion  as  we  travel,  observe  broadly,  and  form 
the  habit  of  a  more  penetrating  and  sympathetic  study 
of  mankind,  shall  we  believe  in  these  emanations  of 


PARAGRAPHS  103 

genius.  Occasionally,  under  the  urge  and  surplusage 
of  his  comic  force,  he  went  too  far  and  made  a  Quilp; 
but  the  vast  majority  of  his  drolls  are  as  credible  as 
they  are  dear.  Richard  Burton:  Masters  of  the  Eng- 
lish Novel. 

(c)  Topic  sentence  as  conclusion  of  paragraph  :  — 

But  I  turn  from  the  critical,  unsympathetic  public, 
—  inclined  to  judge  harshly  because  they  have  only 
seen  superficially  and  not  thought  deeply.  I  appeal  to 
that  larger  and  more  solemn  public  who  know  how  to 
look  with  tender  humility  at  faults  and  errors;  how 
to  admire  generously  extraordinary  genius,  and  how  to 
reverence  with  warm  full  hearts  all  noble  virtue.  To 
that  Public  I  commit  the  memory  of  Charlotte  Bronte. 
Mrs.  Gaskell:  Life  of  Charlotte  Bronte. 

(d)  Topic  sentence  implicit  in  paragraph :  — 

The  temperament  which  admits  the  pathetic  fallacy 
is,  as  I  said  above,  that  of  a  mind  and  body  in  some  sort 
too  weak  to  deal  fully  with  what  is  before  them  or  upon 
them;  borne  away,  or  over-clouded,  or  over-dazzled  by 
emotion ;  and  it  is  a  more  or  less  noble  state,  according 
to  the  force  of  the  emotion  which  has  induced  it.  For 
it  is  no  credit  to  a  man  that  he  is  not  morbid  or  inaccu- 
rate in  his  perceptions,  when  he  has  no  strength  of  feel- 
ing to  warp  them;  and  it  is  in  general  a  sign  of  higher 
capacity  and  stand  in  the  ranks  of  being,  that  the  emo- 
tions should  be  strong  enough  to  vanquish,  partly,  the 
intellect,  and  make  it  believe  what  they  choose.  But 
it  is  still  a  grander  condition  when  the  intellect  also 
rises  till  it  is  strong  enough  to  assert  its  rule  against, 
or  together  with,  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  passions; 
and  the  whole  man  stands  in  an  iron  glow,  white  hot, 
perhaps,  but  still  strong,  and  in  no  wise  evaporating; 
even  if  he  melts,  losing  none  of  his  weight.  John 
Ruskin  :  Modern  Painters. 

From  these  examples  the  student  will  realize  that  a 
paragraph  must  above  all  things  preserve  unity 
of  thought,  i.e.  the  paragraph  must  deal  with  only 
one  topic  and  with  nothing  but  that  topic.    Occa- 


104  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

sionally  the  same  topic,  in  another  phase,  is  consid- 
ered in  the  following  paragraph,  when  the  subject 
is  intricate  or  extensive.  Ordinarily  the  student 
should  strive  in  the  paragraph  to  treat  "the  topic, 
the  whole  topic,  and  nothing  but  the  topic." 

5.  Coherence  in  the  paragraph  may  be  preserved  by 
having  each  sentence  lead  to  the  next.  There  must 
be  a  definite  progression  of  related  thoughts,  with 
no  omissions  and  no  leaping  from  one  idea  to  an- 
other. 

Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether 
that  nation,  or  any  nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated, 
can  long  endure.  We  are  met  on  a  great  battle-field  of  that 
war.  We  have  come  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  a 
final  resting-place  for  those  who  here  gave  their  lives  that 
that  nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether  fitting  and  proper 
that  we  should  do  this.  Abraham  Lincoln:  Gettysburg 
Address. 

6.  Emphasis  in  the  related  paragraph  may  be  secured 
by  the  same  means  as  in  the  isolated  paragraph. 
(See  also  Section  4,  page  100.) 

But  in  a  larger  sense  we  cannot  dedicate  —  we  cannot 
consecrate  —  we  cannot  hallow  —  this  ground.  The  brave 
men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here,  have  consecrated 
it,  far  above  our  power  to  add  or  detract.  The  world  will 
little  note,  nor  long  remember,  what  we  say  here,  but  it 
can  never  forget  what  they  did  here.  It  is  for  us  the  living, 
rather,  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  unfinished  work  which 
they  who  fought  here  have  thus  far  nobly  advanced. 
It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great  task 
remaining  before  us  —  that  from  these  honored  dead  we 
take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for  which  they  gave 
the  last  full  measure  of  devotion  —  that  we  here  highly 
resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain  —  that 
this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom 
—  and  that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for 


PARAGRAPHS  105 

the  people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth.    Abraham 
Lincoln:  Gettysburg  Address. 

7.  In  the  related  paragraph  provision  should  be  made 
to  connect  the  topic  thought  or  central  idea  of  one 
paragraph  with  that  of  the  preceding  and  succeeding 
paragraphs,  in  such  a  way  that  the  transition  will 
be  obvious.  This  connection  may  be  accomplished 
(a)  by  a  transition  sentence  placed  at  the  beginning 
of  the  new  paragraph  relating  in  a  retrospective  man- 
ner to  the  subject-matter  of  the  preceding  paragraph, 
or  placed  at  the  end  of  the  paragraph  relating  in  a 
prospective  manner  to  the  subject-matter  of  the  new 
paragraph  which  is  to  follow;  (6)  by  the  use  of  one 
of  the  many  connective  words  or  phrases,  such  as, 
e.g.,  however,  farther,  on  the  contrary,  nevertheless. 
(For  a  full  list  of  these,  see  pp.  90-91) ;  (c)  or  by  the 
use  of  a  separate  transitional  paragraph  (see  below. 
Section  4,  page  107). 

Government,  then,  is  the  directing  or  managing  of  such 
affairs  as  concern  all  the  people  alike,  —  as,  for  example, 
the  punishment  of  criminals,  the  enforcement  of  contracts, 
the  defence  against  foreign  enemies,  the  maintenance  of 
roads  and  bridges,  and  so  on.  To  the  directing  or  manag- 
ing of  such  affairs  all  the  people  are  expected  to  contribute, 
each  according  to  his  ability,  in  the  shape  of  taxes.  Gov- 
ernment is  something  which  is  supported  by  the  people 
and  kept  alive  by  taxation.  There  is  no  other  way  of  keep- 
ing it  alive.   John  Fiske  :  Taxation  and  Government. 

2.  The  Introductory  Paragraph. 

A  separate  paragraph  is  frequently  used  at  the  be- 
ginning of  an  exposition  in  order  to  introduce  the  sub- 
ject to  the  reader,  or  to  give  a  glimpse  of  the  subject  as 
a  whole,  or  to  indicate  the  division  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject into  parts  which  will  be  subsequently  considered 
in  order.    In  a  narrative  the  introductory  paragraph 


106  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

may  be  used  to  indicate  the  characters,  setting,  theme, 
mood,  or  action  of  the  story.  In  expository  writing  the 
introductory  paragraph  should  be  clear,  emphatic, 
terse,  and  logically  constructed. 

So  far  as  I  know,  there  are  only  three  hypotheses  which 
ever  have  been  entertained,  or  which  well  can  be  entertained, 
respecting  the  past  history  of  Nature.  I  will,  in  the  first  place, 
state  the  hypotheses,  and  then  I  will  consider  what  evidence 
bearing  upon  them  is  in  our  possession,  and  by  what  light 
of  criticism  that  evidence  is  to  be  interpreted.  T.  H.  Huxley: 
Lecture  on  Evolution. 

The  public  school  has  done  its  best  for  us  foreigners,  and 
for  the  country,  when  it  has  made  us  into  good  Americans. 
I  am  glad  it  is  mine  to  tell  how  the  miracle  was  wrought  in  one 
case.  You  should  be  glad  to  hear  of  it,  you  born  Americans; 
for  it  is  the  story  of  the  growth  of  your  country;  of  the  flocking 
of  your  brothers  and  sisters  from  the  far  ends  of  the  earth  to 
the  flag  you  love;  of  the  recruiting  of  your  armies  of  workers, 
thinkers,  and  leaders.  And  you  will  be  glad  to  hear  of  it,  my 
comrades  in  adoption;  for  it  is  a  rehearsal  of  your  own  experi- 
ence, the  thrill  and  wonder  of  which  your  own  hearts  have 
felt.   Mary  Antin:  The  Promised  Land. 

3.  The  Concluding  or  Summary  Paragraph. 

In  ending  a  long  and  elaborate  treatment  of  a  subject, 
the  final  paragraph  is  sometimes  used  to  give  a  summary 
of  the  whole  subject.  Its  purpose  may  be  to  refresh 
the  reader's  mind  on  important  points,  to  set  subordi- 
nate parts  in  their  proper  relations,  or  to  leave  in  the 
reader's  mind  a  clear,  definite,  and  well-ordered  impres- 
sion of  the  subject  that  has  been  under  consideration. 

Let  us  briefly  summarize  the  new  matter  which  we  have 
been  setting  forth  this  morning.  We  have  used  Wordsworth  as 
our  example,  and  we  have  seen  that  vigor  and  quick  sensibil- 
ity prompted  the  desire  to  play  some  not  unworthy  part  in 
the  world.  We  saw  that  his  generous  but  vague  ambition 
soon  expressed  itself  more  definitely,  and  that  he  decided  that 


PARAGRAPHS  107 

his  work  was  to  be  that  of  a  poet-teacher.  We  then  observed 
that  this  high  vocation  was  followed  in  the  strength  of  a  sense 
of  duty,  and  finally  that  the  sense  of  duty  was  never  allowed 
to  become  a  mere  goad  to  urge  on  a  tired  spirit,  because  he 
was  forever  refreshing  himself  at  those  sources  from  which  his 
early  inspiration  was  drawn.  Those  were  the  four  main  stages 
of  our  argument;  and  we  saw  that  they  led  to  some  reflections) 
which  are  not  inappropriate  to  people  like  ourselves  who  are 
setting  out  upon  the  business  of  teaching.  E.  T.  Campagnac: 
Poetry  and  Teaching. 

The  Transition  Paragraph. 

A  brief  paragraph  is  sometimes  used  to  indicate  a 
transition  from  one  complex  subdivision  (usually  occu- 
pying several  paragraphs)  to  another  important  or 
intricate  subdivision  of  the  same  subject.  The  transi- 
tion paragraph  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  summary  in 
so  far  as  it  is  retrospective  and  looks  back  over  the 
points  already  considered;  it  is  in  the  nature  of  an 
introduction  in  so  far  as  it  looks  ahead  and  prepares 
the  reader  for  the  next  step  to  be  taken.  It  should 
always  be  clear,  definite,  and  brief,  with  its  purpose 
entirely  obvious. 

In  the  light  of  this  hope,  I  accept  the  topic  which  not  only 
usage,  but  the  nature  of  our  association,  seem  to  prescribe 
to  this  day,  —  the  American  Scholar.  Year  by  year,  we  come 
up  hither  to  read  one  more  chapter  of  his  biography.  Let  us 
inquire  what  new  lights,  new  events  and  more  days,  have 
thrown  on  his  character,  his  duties,  and  his  hopes.  R.  W. 
Emerson:  The  American  Scholar. 

.  .  .  And  even  in  the  theatre,  the  truth  demanded  in  fiction 
for  more  than  a  century  is  fast  finding  a  place,  and  play- 
making,  sensitive  to  the  new  desire,  is  changing  in  this  respect 
before  our  eyes. 

However,  with  the  good  has  come  evil,  too.  In  the  modern 
seeking  for  so-called  truth,  the  nuda  Veritas  has  in  some  hands 
become  shameless  as  well  —  a  fact  amply  illustrated  in  the 
following  treatment  of  principles  and  personalities. 


108  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

The  Novel  in  the  hands  of  these  eighteenth  century 
writers.  .  .  .  Richard  Burton:  Masters  of  the  English  Novel. 

5.  The  Paragraph  in  Dialogue. 

In  short  stories  and  novels  it  is  customary  to  repre- 
sent dialogue  by  making  each  person's  speech  begin  a 
separate  paragraph.  When  narrative  follows  conversa- 
tion, it  begins  a  new  paragraph. 

"Mr.  Wentworth,"  I  began,  "I  — " 
He  interrupted  me. 

"My  name,  sir,"  he  said,  in  an  offhand  manner,  "is  Jones." 
"Jo- Jo- Jones ! "  I  gasped. 

"No,  not  Joseph  Jones,"  he  returned,  with  a  glacial  air; 
"Frederick." 

Note  :  For  usage  as  to  the  handling  of  dialogue  with  the 
author's  commentary,  the  student  should  carefully  examine 
a  number  of  modern  standard  novels  and  short  stories. 

6.  The  Emphatic  Paragraph. 

Occasionally,  both  in  expository  and  in  narrative 
writing,  a  brief  paragraph  is  made  of  matter  that  is  so 
important  or  significant  that  the  writer  desires,  by 
means  of  comparative  typographical  isolation,  to  catch 
the  reader's  eye  and  attract  his  attention  to  the  matter 
thus  rendered  conspicuous.  This  device,  however, 
should  be  sparingly  used,  even  though  some  newspapers 
use  it  constantly  for  editorial  purposes. 

(a)  Narrative  paragraphing  for  emphasis:  — 

.  .  .  They  are  coming  back  with  the  police,  and  we 
must  not  appear  to  know  each  other  too  well  before  those 
fellows. 

He  clasped  Savinien  hurriedly  to  his  breast;  then  he 
pushed  him  away  as  the  door  swung  open. 

It  was  the  landlord  and  the  old  man  from  Auvergne 
with  the  police.  Jean-Frangois  sprang  to  the  landing,  held 
out  his  wrists  for  the  handcuffs,  and  called  out,  laughing, 
"Forward,  bad  lot!" 

To-day  he  is  at  Cayenne,  condemned  for  life  as  in- 
corrigible. Francois  Coppee:  The  Substitute. 


PARAGRAPHS  109 

(b)  Newspaper  or  "column"  paragraphing  for  emphasis: 

How  shall  we  approach  a  prison  to  see  it  fairly  and  to 
study  it  intelligently? 

Let  us  imagine  ourselves  visitors  from  a  world  outside 
of  this. 

Far  off  in  infinite  space  there  is  a  small  whirling 
planet  —  our  earth. 

Little  creatures  move  about  this  planet,  chained  to  it 
by  force  of  gravity.  But  they  move  as  they  choose,  and 
they  call  themselves  free. 

There  are  millions  of  free  square  miles,  and  hundreds 
of  millions  of  free  human  beings. 

But  there  just  below  us  is  the  prison  at  Auburn. 
There  the  human  beings  are  not  free.  .  .  . 

Arthur  Brisbane:  The  Human  Weeds  in  Prison. 

Mechanical  Rules  for  Paragraphing 

1.  To  begin  a  paragraph,  indent  the  first  word  of  the 
first  line,  —  that  is,  set  it  over  to  the  right  about  half  an 
inch  in  manuscript.  For  examples  of  indention  see  the 
paragraphs  used  as  illustrations  in  this  section. 

2.  At  the  end  of  a  paragraph  leave  blank  the  remainder 
of  the  line  at  the  end  of  your  last  sentence.  For  example :  — 

.  .  .  This  perception  of  the  worth  of  the  vulgar  is  fruit- 
ful in  discoveries.  Goethe,  in  this  very  thing  the  most 
modern  of  the  moderns,  has  shown  us,  as  none  ever  did, 
the  genius  of  the  ancients. 

3.  A  blank  space  should  never  be  left  at  the  end  of  a  line 
unless  the  next  line  is  to  be  indented.    For  example:  — 

Incorrect : 

No  father  in  all  England  could  have  behaved  more 
generously  to  a  son  who  had  rebelled  against  him  wick- 
edly. 

He  had  died  without  even  so  much  as  confessing  he 
was  wrong. 

4.  Exceedingly  long  paragraphs  should  be  avoided. 


110  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

Note.  The  student  is  referred,  for  illustrations,  to  John 
Ruskin's  Modern  Painters,  e.g.  vol.  I,  part  n,  sec.  Ill,  chap, 
iv.  "And  indeed  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  conceive  .  .  .  message 
unto  men." 

5.  In  general,  simple  prose  discourse  should  not  be  par- 
agraphed minutely. 

Choppy  paragraphing  is  not  to  be  recommended.  It  is  a 
cheap  device  employed  by  sensational  writers  to  attract  the 
eye  of  the  reader.  It  is  not  likely  that  an  article  of  250  or  300 
words  will  need  to  be  written  as  more  than  one  paragraph. 

Bad: 

Rebecca  gave  him  all  the  keys  but  one;  and  she  was  in 
hopes  that  he  would  not  remark  the  absence  of  that.  It 
belonged  to  the  little  desk  which  Amelia  had  given  her 
in  early  days,  and  which  she  kept  in  a  secret  place. 

But  Rawdon  flung  open  boxes  and  wardrobes,  throw- 
ing the  multifarious  trumpery  of  their  contents  here  and 
there,  and  at  last  he  found  the  desk. 

The  woman  was  forced  to  open  it. 

It  contained  papers,  love  letters  manj'  years  old  —  all 
sorts  of  small  trinkets  and  woman's  memoranda. 

And  it  contained  a  pocketbook  with  bank  notes. 

Some  of  these  were  dated  ten  years  back,  too,  and  one 
was  quite  a  fresh  one  —  a  note  for  a  thousand  pounds 
which  Lord  Steyne  had  given  her. 

Better: 

Rebecca  gave  him  all  the  keys  but  one;  and  she  was  in 
hopes  that  he  would  not  remark  the  absence  of  that.  It 
belonged  to  the  little  desk  which  Amelia  had  given  her  in 
early  days,  and  which  she  kept  in  a  secret  place.  But 
Rawdon  flung  open  boxes  and  wardrobes,  throwing  the 
multifarious  trumpery  of  their  contents  here  and  there, 
and  at  last  he  found  the  desk.  The  woman  was  forced  to 
open  it.  It  contained  papers,  love  letters  many  years  old 
—  all  sorts  of  small  trinkets  and  woman's  memoranda. 
And  it  contained  a  pocketbook  with  bank  notes.  Some  of 
these  were  dated  ten  years  back,  too,  and  one  was  quite 
a  fresh  one  —  a  note  for  a  thousand  pounds  which  Lord 
Steyne  had  given  her.  Thackeray:  Vanity  Fair. 


PARAGRAPHS  110  a 

6.  The  beginning  and  end  of  a  formal  consideration, 
especially  when  they  constitute  a  real  introduction  and 
a  conclusion,  should  be  paragraphed  separately  from  the 
body  of  the  text.  In  the  case  of  a  very  short  theme  or 
article,  this  rule  should  be  disregarded  for  the  sake  of  unity 
of  impression. 

EXERCISE 

1.  Find  in  the  newspapers  and  in  magazines  five  good  examples 
of  isolated  or  independent  paragraphs.  In  general,  what 
sort  of  subject  is  treated  in  this  manner?  "What  are  the  ad- 
vantages of  this  brevity?   What  are  the  disadvantages? 

2.  Select  five  subjects  suitable  for  short  paragraph  treatment 
and  write  five  paragraphs,  using  as  much  variety  as  possible 
both  in  choice  of  subject  and  in  method  of  treatment. 

3.  Suggest  five  subjects  which  are  too  large  or  too  complicated 
for  treatment  in  isolated  paragraphs.  Can  you  suggest  any 
reason? 

4.  Find  cases  where  the  principles  of  unity  of  subject-matter 
and  unity  of  tone  have  been  violated  in  printed  paragraphs. 
Explain  clearly  your  reasons  for  your  judgment. 

5.  Write  two  isolated  paragraphs,  placing  emphasis  at  the  be- 
ginning of  one  and  at  the  end  of  the  other. 

6.  What  is  meant  by  a  topic  sentence?  Do  you  feel  that  a  topic 
sentence  is  always  necessary?   Why  or  why  not? 

7.  Find  examples  of  paragraphs  to  illustrate  topic  sentences 
(a)  at  beginning  (b)  at  end  (c)  in  the  body  of  the  paragraph 
(d)  implicit  or  suggested. 

8.  Write  out  four  topic  sentences  and  then  embody  them  in 
paragraphs  to  illustrate  the  four  possible  cases  given  in 
question  7. 

9.  Find  examples  of  paragraphs  which  violate  the  principles  of 
unity  and  coherence.  Rewrite  these  paragraphs  in  such  a 
way  as  to  secure  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis. 

10.  Make,  from  memory,  as  long  a  list  as  possible  of  transition 
words.  To  illustrate  the  use  of  these  words,  write  the  first 
sentences  of  several  paragraphs. 

11.  Write  the  introductory  paragraph  of  a  theme  on  any  five  of 
the  expository  subjects  listed  on  pp.  206-08. 


110  b  GRAMMATICAL  REQUIREMENTS 


REFERENCES 

Baldwin,  C.  S.  Composition  Oral  and  Written,  pp.  67-93. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.    The  Expository  Paragraph  and  Sentence,  pp.  28-48. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Writing  and  Speaking,  pp.  155-83. 

Bates,  Arlo.   Talks  on  Writing  English  (series  2),  pp.  88-96,  113-26. 

Brewster,  W.  T.  English  Composition  and  Style,  pp.  88-174. 

Brewster,  W.  T.    Writing  English  Prose,  pp.  121-41. 

Canby,  H.  S.,  and  others.  English  Composition  in  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice, pp.  73-112. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.  Exercises  in  Rhetoric  and  English  Composition, 
pp.  153-76. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.   Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  157-88. 

Donnelly,  F.  P.   Imitation  and  Analysis,  pp.  46-115. 

Espenshade,  A.  H.  Essentials  of  Composition  arid  Rhetoric,  pp.  123- 
78. 

Fulton,  Edward.  English  Prose  Composition,  pp.  12-28. 

Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold.  Manual  of  Composition  and 
Rhetoric,  pp.  277-310. 

Genung,  J.  F.    The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  356-83. 

Herrick,  R.,  and  Damon,  L.  T.  New  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp. 
367-92. 

Hill,  A.  S.   Beginnings  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  pp.  343-63. 

Hitchcock,  A.  M.  Enlarged  Practice-Book  of  English  Composition, 
pp.  326-40. 

Linn,  J.  W.   The  Essentials  of  English  Composition,  pp.  32-41. 

Neal,  R.  W.    Thought-Building  in  Composition. 

Newcomer  and  Seward.   Rhetoric  in  Practice,  pp.  83-103. 

Pearson,  H.  G.   Principles  of  Composition,  pp.  53-80. 

Scott  and  Denney.   Paragraph  Writing. 

Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  34-84. 

Thomas,  Helen.  Study  of  the  Paragraph. 

Thorndike,  A.  H.  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  pp.  36-104. 

Webster,  W.  F.  English:  Composition  and  Literature,  pp.  151-99. 

Wendell,  Barrett.  English  Composition,  pp.  114-49. 

Woolley,  E.  C.   Mechanics  of  Writing,  pp.  206-95. 

Young,  F.  B.  and  K.  Freshman  English,  pp.  33-68. 


Ill 

THE   USE   OF   LANGUAGE 
i.   THE  STUDY   OF  LANGUAGE 

1 .  The  functions  of  language. 

1.  To  communicate  ideas  or  facts  or  suggestions  to 
other  persons,  as  in  the  case  of  newspapers, 
speeches,  or  letters. 

2.  To  keep  a  permanent  record  of  facts,  statements, 
laws,  etc.,  as  in  the  case  of  reports,  documents,  and 
books  of  reference. 

3.  To  give  pleasure  to  the  reader,  as  in  the  case  of 
novels,  short  stories,  poems,  and  the  drama. 

4.  Occasionally  to  conceal  thought,  as  in  the  case  of 
polite  conversation,  social  correspondence,  legal 
evidence. 

2.  Different  means  of  communication. 

The  three  most  common  means  of  communication 
are  the  following :  — 
1.  By  means  of  gesture. 

(a)  The  advantages  of  this  method  are  that  it  is 
simple,  obvious,  efficient  when  clear,  and  useful 
at  a  distance  or  when  sound  is  either  impossi- 
ble or  undesirable. 

(b)  The  disadvantages  of  this  method  are  that  it 
does  not  enable  one  to  express  a  complicated 
idea  and  that  it  does  not  afford  a  permanent 
record. 

(c)  Examples  of  this  method  of  communication 
may  be  found  when  soldiers  or  sailors  are  sig- 


112  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

naling,  when  engineers  are  on  a  survey,  or  when 
friends  greet  one  another. 

2.  By  means  of  signs  or  symbols. 

(a)  The  advantages  of  this  method  are  that  it  is 
permanent,  clearer,  more  condensed  and  more 
lasting  than  gesture. 

(6)  The  disadvantages  are  that  the  meaning  is 
not  always  obvious,  and  that  in  their  more 
complex  forms  the  signs  or  symbols  have  to  be 
learned. 

(c)  Examples  of  this  method  may  be  found  in 
blazes  on  trees,  in  picture  writing,  in  cipher 
codes,  in  inscriptions  and  carvings,  and  in 
alphabets. 

3.  By  means  of  language. 

(a)  The  advantages  of  a  language  are  that  it  is 
the  most  flexible,  efficient,  and  complete  of  all 
the  means  of  communication,  and  the  only  one 
by  which  abstract  or  complicated  ideas  can  be 
expressed  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  It  has 
also  the  greatest  power  of  emotional  suggestion 
and  is  the  most  susceptible  of  artistic  treat- 
ment. 

(6)  The  difficulties  of  a  language  are  that  it  is 
the  most  difficult  to  learn  because  it  is  farthest 
removed  from  the  thing  signified  and  involves 
greater  intellectual  ability  for  its  accurate  and 
efficient  use. 

(c)  Examples  can  be  found  in  everyday  life  in  con- 
versation, addresses,  songs,  the  daily  news- 
paper, and  the  magazine. 

3.  Methods  of  studying  language. 

Language  may  be  studied  from  any  of  the  following 
points  of  view :  — 


THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGE  113 

1.  Sound  production,  pronunciation,  and  accent. 

2.  Meaning  of  words  and  development  of  vocabulary. 

3.  Mechanical  means  of  representation:  spelling  and 
writing. 

4.  Relations  of  words  to  ideas  and  to  other  words: 
grammar. 

5.  Methods  of  word  formation  and  development: 
philology. 

6.  The  proper  use  of  words :  diction  and  good  usage. 

7.  The  aesthetic  value  of  words:  style. 

Language  as  a  means  of  communication. 

1.  The  three  qualities  that  language,  as  a  means  of 
communication,  demands  are  Simplicity,  Clear- 
ness, and  Effectiveness.  When  language  is  re- 
garded also  as  a  fine  art,  it  involves  attention  to 
melody  of  sound,  rhythm  of  arrangement,  and 
suggestiveness  of  ideas. 

2.  Language  makes  use  of  words  as  units  of  ex- 
pression. 

(a)  Retrospectively  these  words  summarize  past 
experiences  of  men  and  give  a  name  which 
serves  to  indicate  or  distinguish  a  new  object 
or  idea,  and  which  stands  for  the  whole  com- 
plex of  associated  ideas  which  go  to  make  up 
this  new  idea  or  thing. 

Thus  the  word  "telephone"  stands  as  a 
summary  of  the  past  experience  of  men  in 
transmitting  sound  to  a  distance.  For  this 
reason  each  scientific  invention  and  discovery 
must  be  given  a  name  which  will  stand  for  and 
suggest  in  the  minds  of  men  all  the  complex 
ideas  involved  in  that  invention  or  discovery. 

(6)  Prospectively  these  words  serve  as  a  means  of 
controlling  the  thoughts  of  other  people  by 


114  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

suggesting  to  them  the  desired  idea  by  means 
of  the  spoken  or  written  word.  Just  as  you  can 
attract  the  attention  of  a  man  if  you  know  his 
name  or  can  direct  the  course  of  a  letter  by  the 
name  of  the  person  addressed,  so  you  can  di- 
rect the  thoughts  of  a  reader  by  means  of  the 
words  which  you  select  for  the  transmission  of 
your  thoughts. 
3.  The  problem  of  gaining  control  over  words  them- 
selves involves  three  steps :  — 
(a)  Learning  how  to  represent  them  by  spelling 
and  writing. 

(See  rules  on  pages  45-46.) 
(6)  Learning  how  to  combine  them  in  sentences 
and  paragraphs. 

(For  Sentence  Structure  see  pages  67-98.) 
(For  the  Paragraph  see  pages  98-101.) 

(c)  Learning  how  to  select  and  use  them  effectively 
by  the  formation  of  a  vocabulary  and  by  prac- 
tice in  correct  usage. 

(For  the  development  of  a  vocabulary  see  pages 

120-21.) 
(For  Faulty  Diction  see  pages  167-84.) 
(For  Style  see  pages  145-157.) 

5.  Classification  of  the  parts  of  speech. 

The  simplest  and  most  practical  classification  of 
the  parts  of  speech  depends  upon  the  functions  of  the 
words  themselves.  There  are  three  main  offices  which 
words  fulfill :  — 

1.  To  act  as  formulae  or  directions  for  the  expression 
of  general  ideas  of  things,  actions,  qualities,  or  re- 
lations. Words  which  perform  these  functions  are 
called  nouns,  pronouns,  infinitives,  and  gerunds. 


THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGE  115 

2.  To  limit,  modify,  qualify,  or  make  definite  and 
particular  general  ideas.  The  parts  of  speech 
which  fulfill  this  purpose  are  called  adjectives, 
adverbs,  and  participles,  either  alone  or  in  the  form 
of  phrases  or  clauses. 

3.  To  indicate  the  relation  between  two  or  more  ideas 
consisting  of  either  a  single  word  or  a  group  of 
words.  The  parts  of  speech  which  perform  this 
function  are  called  verbs,  prepositions,  and  con- 
junctions. 

Note:  The  interjection,  such  as  "Oh!"  or  its  equivalent,  is 
really  a  contracted  expression  for  a  whole  situation,  or  for  the 
speaker's  reaction  to  that  situation.  It  accompanies  surprise, 
pain,  fear,  joy,  sorrow,  etc.,  and  is  generally  tinged  with  excite- 
ment or  strong  emotion  and  accompanied  by  gesture  or  facial 
expression  which  emphasize  its  significance. 

6.  The  process  of  learning  to  speak  a  language. 

1.  The  instinct  of  speech  is  one  that  distinguishes 
man  from  all  other  animals.  So  essential  is  speech 
to  human  existence  that  a  special  sign  language  has 
been  constructed  to  enable  persons  born  deaf  to 
communicate  with  one  another.  The  earliest  steps 
in  the  acquisition  of  a  language  consist  in  making 
the  child  conscious  of  its  power  of  expressing  itself 
by  means  of  the  voice. 

2.  The  student  of  language  should  become  familiar 
with  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  organs  of 
speech:  the  lips,  teeth,  tongue,  pharynx,  and 
throat.  The  letters  and  sounds  formed  by  each 
should  be  mastered,  and  the  difference  in  intona- 
tion caused  by  variations  in  the  placing  of  the 
voice  should  be  realized. 

3.  In  the  production  of  sounds  by  the  voice,  the  dif- 
ference should  be  noted  between:  — 


116  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

(a)  Vowels,  which  are  voiced  (sometimes  whis- 
pered) sounds  produced  with  little  or  no  ob- 
struction to  the  breath,  and  which  depend  for 
their  quality  upon  the  shape  of  the  mouth- 
cavity  producing  them. 

The  vowels  are:  a,  e,  i,  o,  u. 

(b)  Consonants,  which,  as  their  name  indicates,  are 
sounds  that  become  audible  only  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  vowels.  They  are  produced  by 
friction,  or  squeezing,  or  stopping  the  breath 
by  means  of  the  throat,  the  teeth,  or  the 
lips. 

4.  After  the  child  has  become  conscious  of  the 
method  of  producing  sound  and  has  reasonable 
control,  its  next  task  is  the  formation  of  associa- 
tions between  the  thing  and  the  word  that  repre- 
sents the  thing  in  language.  The  same  process  is 
involved  in  the  case  of  an  adult  learning  a  foreign 
language.  In  reading  or  in  listening  to  the  speech 
of  others,  the  word  must  call  up  a  picture  of  the 
thing  signified;  and  in  speaking  or  writing  about 
things,  the  learner  must  know  the  language  sym- 
bol of  the  thing  to  which  he  wishes  to  refer.  The 
word  "  dog,"  for  example,  must  call  up  a  picture  of 
that  animal  in  the  student's  mind. 

5.  An  important  condition  of  good  pronunciation  and 
correct  speech  is  the  ability  to  form  clear  memories 
of  sounds.  The  learner  must  be  able  to  hear  in 
memory  how  a  certain  combination  of  letters 
sounds  or  how  the  accent  falls  in  a  particular  word. 

6.  The  process  of  pronouncing  usually  consists  of 
these  stages :  — 

(a)  Experiments  on  the  part  of  the  beginner  in  the 


THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGE  117 

production  of  sounds  approximately  or  exactly 
like  those  which  he  desires  to  imitate. 

(b)  Repetition  of  the  correct  imitation  and  prac- 
tice until  pronunciation  becomes  easy. 

(c)  Guidance  in  the  production  of  sounds  by 
means  of  rules  for  the  proper  pronunciation  of 
certain  combinations  of  letters.  The  advan- 
tage of  this  assistance  is  more  apparent  in  for- 
eign languages  than  it  is  in  English. 

7.  One  of  the  last  things  to  be  developed  is  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  aesthetic  possibilities  of  a  language, 
a  realization  of  the  pleasure  which  certain  sound 
combinations  can  afford,  and  an  ability  to  make 
use  of  all  the  resources  which  a  language  offers  for 
effective  speech.  This  sense  of  style  and  of  the 
genius  of  a  language  comes  only  after  long  fa- 
miliarity. 

Mispronunciation  is  due  to  the  following  causes:  — 

1.  Ignorance  because  the  speaker 

(a)  has  never  heard  the  word  correctly  pro- 
nounced; 

e.g.,  inventory,  aeroplane. 

(b)  is  experimenting  with  a  new  or  foreign  word; 

e.g.,  menu,  demi-tasse. 

(c)  is  ignorant  of  the  derivation  of  the  word; 

e.g.,  laboratory,  percolator. 

2.  A  wrong  sound  value  given  to  a  word  or  phrase, 
especially  in  the  case  of  foreigners  or  persons 
under  the  influence  of  marked  dialect. 

Note  the  difficulty  that  French  people  have  in 
the  pronunciation  of  the  letters  th,  and  the  Ger- 
mans in  the  pronunciation  of  v  and  w. 


118  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

3.  Lack  of  precision  in  tone  quality,  owing  to 
personal  peculiarities  or  to  the  lack  of  proper 
training.  Either  of  these  defects  may  result  in 
pronunciation  which  is :  — 

(a)  vulgar; 

(b)  careless  or  slovenly; 

(c)  indistinct,  owing  either  to  some  imperfection 
of  the  vocal  organs,  or  to  insufficient  effort  or 
breath  supply. 

4.  Wrong  accent  or  syllabification; 

e.g.,  barbarous,  epizootic. 

5.  Confusion  arising  from  the  fact  that  English 
vowels  have  more  than  one  sound  value. 

Cf.  ou  in  though   through,  rough,  sough,  thought, 
thorough. 

8.  Mispronunciation  may  be  corrected  in  the  following 
ways:  — 

1.  By  listening  carefully  and  forming  correct  sound 
memories  of  the  proper  pronunciation.  This  is 
almost  entirely  a  matter  of  observation  and 
habit. 

2.  By  practice  and  repetition  until  the  correct  pro- 
nunciation has  become  easy  and  habitual. 

3.  By  consciously  noticing  the  pronunciation  of 
cultured  people  and  by  realizing  that  correct 
pronunciation  involves  the  cultivation  of  a  pleas- 
ing speaking  voice  and  a  refined  intonation  as  well 
as  accuracy  in  the  reproduction  of  individual 
words. 

4.  By  noticing  the  incorrectness  and  inaccuracy  in 
one's  own  speech  or  in  the  conversation  of  his 
companions. 

5.  By  drill  in  the  pronunciation  of  new  words  and 


THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGE  119 

combinations  of  letters  in  order  to  give  ease  of 
expression  or  to  overcome  individual  difficulties. 

The  use  of  words. 

A  writer's  success  in  appealing  to  the  mind  of  his 
reader  depends  largely  upon  his  use  of  words.  Nice 
discrimination  and  continual  watchfulness  not  only 
indicate  the  trained  writer,  but  add  to  his  work  a 
quality,  finish,  and  style  which  never  characterize  one 
who  is  habitually  careless  in  his  use  of  language. 

With  regard  to  the  choice  of  words  the  student  of 
the  technique  of  writing  should  ask  himself  such 
questions  as  the  following:  — 

1.  Have  I  chosen  words  which  have  the  quality  of 
precision?  Do  they  express  my  meaning  with 
exactness,  clearness,  and  accuracy? 

2.  Are  the  words  used  appropriate  to  the  idea  con- 
veyed? Have  they  the  power  to  suggest  and  arouse 
associated  ideas? 

3.  Have  I  made  the  mistake  of  using  neologisms,  or 
new  words,  perhaps  of  incorrect  formation?  Or 
archaic  and  obsolescent  words? 

4.  Have  I  gone  to  extremes  in  using  slang  or  pedantic 
words  when  neither  of  these  is  appropriate  or  jus- 
tified? 

5.  Have  I  been  sufficiently  careful  in  the  use  of 
idiomatic  expressions  or  foreign  words  or  phrases? 

6.  Have  I  been  careful  to  use  neither  too  many  nor 
too  few  words  for  the  adequate  expression  of  the 
ideas  which  I  have  in  mind? 

Note  :  The  student  should  distinguish  between 

Verbosity  or  -pleonasm,  which  mean  that  too  many  words 

have  been  used  to  express  the  idea. 
Tautology  or  repetition,  which  mean  that  the  same  idea 
or  word  has  been  unnecessarily  used  more  than  once. 


120  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

2.  SOME   SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDY   OF  WORDS 

1.  Become  familiar  with  the  history  of  the  English 
language. 

Any  good  history  of  English  literature  or  the  early  pages  of 
the  authoritative  dictionaries  will  afford  an  outline  of  the  devel- 
opment of  the  language. 

2.  Learn  something  of  the  comparative  values  of  Saxon 
and  classical  words. 

3.  When  opportunity  offers,  obtain  some  knowledge  of 

Anglo-Saxon  and  Middle  English. 

If  you  cannot  attend  courses  in  these  subjects,  read  care- 
fully the  introduction  to  some  standard  dictionary  in  which 
these  subjects  are  treated.  Make  use  of  Murray's  New  English 
Dictionary  and  of  Skeat's  Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  English 
Language. 

4.  Study  the  dead  and  foreign  languages,  and  trace 
analogies  with  English.  Note  the  difference  in  idioms.  If 
you  lack  a  knowledge  of  Latin  or  Greek,  learn  some  of  the 
common  roots,  and  practice  making  use  of  them  in  word 
analysis. 

See  list  on  pages  133-34. 

See  prefixes  and  suffixes  on  pages  134-36. 

5.  As  far  as  your  knowledge  of  language  allows,  form  a 
habit  of  resolving  words  into  their  constituent  elements. 

If  you  form  the  habit  of  analyzing  words,  you  will  find  that 
you  are  able  to  use  them  more  intelligently  than  you  would  be 
if  you  regarded  them  in  the  mass. 

6.  Learn  some  good  list  of  foreign  words  that  are  becom- 
ing anglicized. 

See  fist  on  pages  140-41. 

7.  If  possible,  provide  yourself  with  desk  dictionaries  of 
the  Latin,   French,   German,  and  Italian  languages,  in 


THE  USE  OF  THE  DICTIONARY  121 

order  that  you  may  look  up  any  foreign  word  which  you 
encounter. 

See  references  on  pages  126-27. 

8.  Distinguish  between  American  and  British  usage. 

In  connection  with  this  matter  it  is  well  to  read :  — 

Matthews,  Brander:  Parts  of  Speech,  chaps.  3,  4,  5,  12. 

Williams,  R.  0.:  Our  Dictionaries,  chap.  4,  "On  Good 
English  for  Americans." 

Tucker,  G.  M.:  Our  Common  Speech,  chap.  6,  "On  Ameri- 
can English." 

9.  Interest  yourself  in  dialect  forms  and  varied  pro- 
nunciations which  you  meet  in  your  travels.  Make  the 
acquaintance  of  a  dialect  dictionary. 

10.  Be  on  the  alert  for  suspicious  forms  of  words  in  news- 
paper English  and  colloquial  speech.  Do  not  accept  a  new 
word  unless  you  can  find  good  authority  for  it. 

1 1 .  Make  constant  and  intelligent  use  of  the  dictionary 
See  pages  125-26. 

12.  Keep  a  book  of  synonyms  at  hand,  and  study  the  dif- 
ferences among  words  somewhat  similar  in  meaning. 

See  references  on  page  129. 

13.  Read  available  books  and  articles  on  the  history  and 
use  of  words. 

See  references  on  page  127. 

14.  Cultivate  a  friendly  interest  in  words,  to  the  end  that 
they  may  entertain  and  instruct  you. 

3.  THE  USE   OF  THE   DICTIONARY 

1 .  Look  at  the  title-page  to  see  who  is  responsible  for  the 
volume. 

2.  Become  familiar  with  the  possibilities  of  the  diction- 
ary to  which  you  have  access. 


122  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

The  first  pages  of  any  good  dictionary  are  usually  given  up 
to  a  history  of  the  English  language,  and  an  exposition  of  the 
established  rules  for  spelling  and  pronunciation.  The  latter 
part  of  the  volume  contains  vast  amounts  of  information,  in 
the  form  of  supplements,  gazetteers,  biographical  data,  lists  of 
foreign  phrases,  illustrations,  maps,  plates,  etc. 

3.  Learn  the  abbreviations  commonly  used  in  the  ex- 
planatory material  of  the  dictionary. 

A  list  of  such  abbreviations  is  given  somewhere  in  the  very 
early  pages  of  the  book.  Examples  are  given  below:  — 

n.,  noun;  a.,  adjective;  v.L,  verb  transitive;  v.i.,  verb  in- 
transitive; p.a.,  participial  adjective;  jr.,  from;  c/.,  compare; 
AS,  or  A.S.,  Anglo-Saxon;  Celt.,  Celtic;  ME,  Middle  English, 
Gr.,  Greek. 

(See  also  Exercises,  pages  124-25.) 

4.  Learn  some  system  of  diacritical  marks,  preferably 
that  of  the  dictionary  which  you  are  likely  to  use  the  most. 

(See  the  system  printed  on  pages  164-65  of  this  book.) 

5.  Learn  the  order  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

In  these  days  of  teaching  by  the  "sentence  method,"  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  find  young  people  who  are  far  from  sure  as 
to  the  order  of  the  letters  in  the  latter  part  of  the  alphabet. 
The  student  should  make  up  any  deficiency  of  this  sort. 

6.  In  looking  up  any  particular  word,  note :  — 

1.  Pronunciation;  variations  in  pronunciation.  The 
preferred  form  is  usually  given  first. 

2.  Origin  or  etymology  If  this  is  not  given,  look  back 
to  the  earliest  preceding  word  from  the  same  root. 

3.  Varied  meanings.  These  are  marked  plainly,  1,  2,  3, 
etc.  In  case  of  special  application,  the  word  may 
be  marked  Bot.,  Naut.,  Chem.,  Arch.  The  meaning 
of  these  abbreviations  can  be  discovered  in  the  list 
in  the  first  part  of  the  dictionary. 

4.  Examples  of  its  use.  Quotations  from  good  litera- 
ture are  given,  illustrating  the  use  of  the  word. 


THE  USE  OF  THE  DICTIONARY  123 

5.  Synonyms  and  antonyms.  Very  often  lists  of 
synonyms  and  antonyms  are  given,  and  exact 
shades  of  meaning  are  pointed  out. 

6.  Comment.  Words  are  often  labeled  Obs.  (Obsolete), 
Low,  Slang,  Rare,  Local,  Cant,  Archaic,  or  some- 
thing equally  definite.  If  no  comment  is  given,  the 
student  is  left  to  infer  that  the  word  is  in  good 
general  use. 

7.  Combinations  with  other  words.  A  list  of  such  com- 
pounds is  usually  given,  after  the  word  in  ques- 
tion has  been  discussed.  For  instance,  after  the 
word  golden,  in  Webster's  New  International  Dic- 
tionary, we  find  g.  beetle;  g.  buck;  g.  cordial;  g.  Gate; 
g.  Horseshoe,  etc. 

8.  References.  These  are  indicated  by  See  .  .  . ,  or  Cf. 
(Compare),  or  q.v.  (Latin,  quod  vide,  which  see). 
Sometimes  references  are  made  to  illustrations  at 
the  back  of  the  book. 

7.  Form  a  habit  of  devoting  a  considerable  amount  of 
time  to  the  study  of  the  dictionary. 

Merely  looking  through  the  dictionary  in  search  of  enter- 
tainment is  a  profitable  occupation.  Much  better,  however,  is 
a  systematic  study,  based  on  words  taken  from  one's  reading, 
or  from  some  good  list  for  etymological  study. 

^See  pages  136-37.) 

EXERCISE 

1.  Look  up  in  any  good  standard  dictionary:1 

steward  tell  walrus 

chanticleer  cheese  feat 

journey  garlic  ingot 

benefactor  umbrella  mew 

adder  transpire  antic 

trencher  let  tawdry 

1  Follow  directions  given  under  note  6,  on  page  122. 


124  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 


halcyon 

hector 

carouse 

admire 

rathe 

kickshaws 

electrocute 

maudlin 

tumbler 

corse 

taboo 

burglarize 

2.  What  is  the  exact  meaning  of  the  following  commentaries 
upon  words,  as  used  in  the  authoritative  dictionaries? 

Colloq.  Cant  Low 

Slang  Rare  Archaic 

Local  Scot.  Local  Ir.  Dial.  Eng. 

Obs.  Obsolesc.  Poet. 

Dial.  U.S.  West.  U.S.  Variant 

3.  Find  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  following  abbreviations  used 
to  explain  words  in  the  dictionary :  — 

Her.  Biol.  Eccl. 

Anat.  Pol.  Skt. 

Phar.  Teut.  Gael. 

Ornith.  Hind.  Archseol. 

Dan.  D.  Icel. 

Pathol.  MHG  Celt. 

OF  ME  Slav. 

Arach.  Angl.  Ger. 

L.  Gr.  AF 

4.  Find  the  meaning  of  the  following  signs  used  to  explain 
words :  — 

<     t     >     +     v~ 

5.  What  is  Murray's  New  English  Dictionary?  What  are  its  dis- 
tinguishing features? 

6.  Look  up  the  following  proper  names  in  the  Standard  Diction- 
ary, Webster's  International,  or  Century  Dictionary  of  Names: 

Abt  Bruges  Brunelleschi 

Ipswich  Jericho  Madison 

Paulding  Terborch  Verestchagin 

7.  In  the  Standard  Dictionary,  look  up  the  following  foreign 
phrases:  — 

dulce  et  decorum  est  pro  patria  mori 
furor  scribendi 
hoi  polloi 


THE  USE  OF  THE  DICTIONARY  125 

il  faut  de  Pargent 

e  meglio  tardi  che  mai 

el  hombre  propone,  y  Dios  dispone 

ohne  Hast,  ohne  Rast 

8.  Look  up  the  following  abbreviations:  — 

A.R.U.  Chal.  F.R.G.S. 

F.R.S.  I.H.S.  K.C.B. 

K.L.H.  M.P.  non  seq. 

pnxt.  pseud.  q.e.d. 

q.v.  S.P.C.C.  ut  sup. 

9.  Examine  the  following  inexpensive  desk  dictionaries,  and 
decide  which  you  would  rather  own :  — 

The  Concise  Oxford  Dictionary 
Webster's  Collegiate  Dictionary 
The  Student's  Standard  Dictionary 

10.  In  R.  G.  White's  Words  and  their  Uses,  read  chapter  9,  on 
"English  Dictionaries." 

11.  Read  T.  R.  Lounsbury's  "The  Standard  of  Pronunciation  in 
English,"  Harper's  Magazine,  vol.  107,  pp.  261-68;  575-82. 

DICTIONARIES  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

Webster's  New  International  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language. 
lvol. 

A  revision  containing  400,000  entries,  and  incorporating  in  the 
dictionary  all  matter  formerly  in  appendixes,  except  the  geographi- 
cal gazetteer  and  the  biographical  dictionary.  Each  page  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  upper  containing  familiar  words,  and  the  lower 
containing  unusual,  obsolete,  or  foreign  words. 

Century  Dictionary  and  Cyclopedia.    12  vols. 

Volumes  1-10  contain  definitions  and  much  encyclopedic  mat- 
ter, with  many  good  illustrations.  Volume  11  contains  a  cyclopedia 
of  names,  and  volume  12  an  atlas  of  the  world.  This  work  combines 
the  qualities  and  advantages  of  a  dictionary  with  those  of  an 
encyclopedia. 

Standard  New  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language.   1  vol. 

Contains  450,000  words,  with  appendixes  giving  disputed  pro- 
nunciations and  foreign  words  and  phrases.  Abbreviations  and 
proper  names  are  included  in  the  body  of  the  work.  This  dic- 
tionary contains  much  encyclopedic  matter,  in  addition  to  defini- 
tions of  words. 


126  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

Murray,  J.  A.  H.  New  English  Dictionary  on  Historical  Principles  (in 
progress).   20  vol. 

Gives  all  words  that  have  been  in  use  in  the  English  language 
since  the  year  1200,  with  the  meaning,  derivation,  and  history, 
illustrated  by  quotations  from  writers  of  different  periods.  This 
dictionary  is  for  the  scholar  and  is  valuable  in  linguistic  study. 

Fennell,  C.  A.  M.    Standard  Dictionary  of  Anglicised  Words  and 
Phrases. 

Skeat,  W.  W.  Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language. 

DICTIONARIES  OF   OBSOLETE  AND  PROVINCIAL 

EXPRESSIONS 

Halliwell-Phillipps,  J.  O.    Dictionary  of  Archaic  and  Provincial 

Words.   2  vols. 
Wright,  Thomas.    Dictionary  of  Obsolete  and  Provincial  English. 

2  vols. 

DICTIONARIES   OF  SLANG,   ETC. 

Ware,  J.  R.    Passing  English  of  the  Victorian  Era;  a  Dictionary  of 

Heterodox  English,  Slang,  and  Phrase. 
Thornton,  R.  H.    An  American  Glossary;  an  Attempt  to  illustrate 

Certain  Americanisms  on  Historical  Principles.   2  vols. 
Barrere,  Albert,  and  Leland,  C.  G.  Dictionary  of  Slang,  Jargon, 

and  Cant.   2  vols. 
Bartlett,  J.  R.   Dictionary  of  Americanisms.  9th  ed. 
Clapin,  Sylva.  New  Dictionary  of  Americanisms. 
Farmer,  J.  S.,  and  Henley,  W.  E.  Dictionary  of  Slang  and  Colloquial 

English. 
Maitland,  James.   The  American  Slang  Dictionary. 

DICTIONARIES  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES 

French: 

A  very  good  French  dictionary  is  Gasc's  French-English  and 
English-French  Dictionary.   Library  Edition,  published  by  Henry 

Holt  &  Co. 

A  cheaper  form  of  the  same  dictionary  is  Gasc's  French  Dic- 
tionary, Student's  Edition,  published  by  Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
German: 

An  excellent  but  somewhat  expensive  book  is  the  Fliigel- 
Schmidt-Tanger  Wbrterbuch  der  Englischen  und  Deutschen  Sprache, 
in  two  volumes  (Deutsch-Englisch,  and  Englisch-Deutsch),  which 
may  be  bought  separately. 

A  less  expensive  book  is  the  German  Dictionary,  published  by  D. 
C.  Heath  &  Co. 


SYNONYMS  127 

Italian: 

Baretti'a  Italian  Dictionary,  in  two  volumes,  published  by  Whit- 
aker,  in  London. 

Melzi's  Italian  Dictionary,  published  by  Hirschfeld,  in  Lon- 
don. 

Note:  The  student's  attention  is  called  to  the  Feller  Pocket  Dic- 
tionaries, which  are  small  and  extremely  inexpensive  volumes.  For 
those  who  do  not  wish  to  purchase  the  better  bound  and  more 
expensive  books,  these  little  dictionaries  can  be  made  to  serve  many 
practical  purposes.  The  Burt  Dictionaries,  in  nearly  all  foreign  lan- 
guages, are  cheap  and  convenient,  but  not  particularly  reliable. 

BOOKS   HELPFUL   IN   THE   STUDY   OF  WORDS 

Bell,  R.  H.    The  Changing  Values  of  English  Speech. 

Blackburn,  E.  M.  A  Study  of  Words. 

The  King's  English.   Clarendon  Press. 

Fernald,  J.  C.   Connectives  of  English  Speech. 

Greenough,  J.  B.,  and  Kittredge,  G.  L.   Words  and  their  Ways. 

Lounsbury,  T.  R.  English  Spelling  and  Spelling  Reform. 

Lounsbury,  T.  R.  History  of  the  English  Language. 

Matthews,  Brander.   Paris  of  Speech. 

Smith.  L.  P.   The  English  Language. 

Trench,  R.  C.  On  the  Study  of  Words. 

White,  R.  G.  Every-Day  English. 

White,  R.  G.   Words  and  Their  Uses. 

REFERENCES 

Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold.    Manual  of  Composition  and 

Rhetoric,  p.  433. 
Herrick  and  Damon.  New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools,  pp. 

228-54. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.    Enlarged  Practice-Book  in  English  Composition, 

pp.  109-19. 
Jordan,  M.  A.  Correct  Writing  and  Speaking,  pp.  221-42. 

4.  SYNONYMS 
I.  Definition. 

A  synonym  may  be  defined  as  a  word  which  ex- 
presses the  same  or  approximately  the  same  idea  or 
meaning  as  another  word.  Synonymous  words  are 
not  identical;  they  are  often  similar  or  even  equiva- 


128  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

lent  in  meaning;  and  in  practice  they  are  often  inter- 
changeable without  producing  a  marked  alteration  in 
the  meaning  of  the  sentence. 

2.  Study  of  synonyms. 

The  study  of  synonyms  is  of  value  from  three 
points  of  view : 

1.  Definiteness  of  thought.  When  two  or  three  words 
suggest  themselves  to  the  mind,  the  writer  should 
define  his  thought  so  clearly  that  there  will  be  no 
doubt  as  to  which  of  the  terms  is  the  appropriate 
one  to  select. 

2.  Exactness  of  expression.  Just  as  the  artist  has 
brushes  of  different  sizes  or  the  dentist  has  instru- 
ments with  only  minute  differences,  so  the  writer 
as  a  professional  user  of  words  should  be  able  to 
make  delicate  distinctions  and  to  select  the  exact 
word  which  will  best  suit  his  purpose. 

3.  Variety  of  style.  In  order  to  avoid  repetition  and 
monotony,  and  in  order  to  secure  variety,  interest, 
and  emphasis,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  possibili- 
ties of  language,  and  to  be  able  to  use  a  stronger  or 
a  weaker  word,  a  more  or  a  less  suggestive  one,  or  a 
wider  or  a  narrower  term  where  the  requirements 
of  style  demand  a  nice  choice  and  a  subtle  dis- 
crimination. 

3.  Lists  of  synonyms. 

In  his  effort  to  increase  the  extent  of  his  vocabu- 
lary and  to  render  his  use  of  words  more  precise  and 
effective,  the  student  should  consult  (in  addition  to 
the  standard  dictionaries  mentioned  on  pages  125-26) 
the  useful  books  of  synonyms  named  below.  He 
should  note  that  in  some  cases  the  words  are  arranged 
alphabetically  as  in  a  dictionary,  and  that  in  others 


SYNONYMS  129 

they  are  grouped  according  to  subject,  and  necessi- 
tate the  use  of  an  index. 

Crabb,  George.  English  Synonyms  Explained  in  Alpha- 
betic Order. 

Fallows,  Samuel.  Complete  Dictionary  of  Synonyms  and 
Antonyms. 

Fernald,  J.  C.  English  Synonyms  and  Antonyms. 

Gray,  A.  K.  Dictionary  of  Synonyms. 

March,  F.  A.,  and  F.  A.,  Jr.  Thesaurus  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language. 

Orbway,  E.  B.   Synonyms  and  Antonyms. 

Roget,  P.  M.   Thesaurus  of  English  Words  and  Phrases. 

Smith,  C.  J.  Synonyms  Discriminated. 

Soule,  Richarb.   Dictionary  of  English  Synonyms. 

4.  Homonyms. 

The  student  should   not  confuse  synonyms  with 

homonyms,  which  are  words  of   approximately  the 

same  pronunciation  but  with  a  different  meaning.    A 

list  of  the  more  common  is  given  below :  — 

bear,  bare;  rein,  rain,  reign;  read,  red;  lead,  led;  right, 
rite,  wright;  leak,  leek;  meat,  meet,  mete;  cellar,  seller; 
desert,  dessert;  two,  too,  to;  dough,  doe;  tow,  toe;  soar, 
sore;  way,  weigh;  ton,  tun;  done,  dun;  tear,  tare;  tier, 
tear;  wave,  waive;  sight,  site;  wear,  ware;  hair,  hare; 
loan,  lone;  hail,  hale;  bale,  bail;  flee,  flea;  bough,  bow; 
road,  rode,  rowed;  rough,  ruff;  sail,  sale;  mail,  male;  ail, 
ale;  slight,  sleight;  faint,  feint;  beau,  bow;  so,  sew,  sow; 
know,  no;  deer,  dear;  fair,  fare. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Discuss  the  following  quotations:  — 

(a)  "Spoken  language  is  born  of  any  two  or  more  associated 
human  beings.  It  grows,  matures,  assimilates,  changes, 
incorporates,  excludes,  develops,  languishes,  decays,  dies 
utterly,  with  the  societies  to  which  it  owes  its  being." 
A.  J.  Ellis  :  On  the  History  of  Voice. 

(b)  "The  history  of  the  single  word  bedlam  cannot  be  com- 
pletely understood  without  some  knowledge  of  the  history 


130  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

of  Europe  and  Asia  for  more  than  fifteen  hundred  years. 
.  .  .  Words  are  the  signs  of  thought  and  thoughts  make 
history."  Greenough  and  Kittredge:  Words  and  their 
Ways  in  English  Speech. 

(c)  "The  English  tongue  has  become  a  rank  polyglot,  and  is 
spreading  over  the  earth  like  some  hardy  plant  whose  seed 
is  sown  by  the  wind."  R.  H.  Bell:  The  Changing  Values 
of  English  Speech. 

(d)  "There  can  be  no  rational  doubt,  I  think,  that  the  English 
language  has  gained,  and  is  gaining,  enormously  by  its 
expansion  over  the  American  continent.  The  prime  func- 
tion of  a  language,  after  all,  is  to  interpret  the  'form  and 
pressure'  of  life  —  the  experience,  knowledge,  thought, 
emotion,  and  aspiration  of  the  race  which  employs  it." 
William  Archer:  America  To-day. 

2.  Which  of  the  following  expressions  is  the  more  forceful?  Why? 

(a)  "Boys,  if  I  ever  have  a  chance  to  hit  slavery,  by  God,  I '11 

do  it  hard!"  Abraham  Lincoln. 
(6)    "Boys,  if  I  should  ever  have  an  opportunity  to  smite 

slavery,  I  shall  do  so  with  great  force."  Quoted  by  R.  H. 

Bell:  The  Changing  Values  of  English  Speech. 

3.  Find  the  derivation  and  meaning  of  the  following  words:  — 

(a)  incentive,  chimera,  instigation,  meander,  aggravate; 

(b)  precocious,  prevent,  scintillate,  dandelion,  faculty; 

(c)  bedlam,  chastise,  exasperate,  mollycoddle,  desultory; 

(d)  classic,  spoil,  capricious,  petrel,  term. 

4.  Find  the  source  of  the  following  words :  — 
(a)  vaudeville,  phenomenon,  cactus; 

(6)   savant,  focus,  cherub; 

(c)  technique,  opera,  formula; 

(d)  brunette,  curriculum,  employee. 

5.  From  what  languages  are  the  following  words  derived?  Give 
the  roots  when  possible. 

(o)  contemplate,  lieutenant,  cargo,  attention,  consols,  pande- 
monium; 

(6)   osteology,  grotesque,  leg,  quixotic,  telephone,  poem; 


SYNONYMS  131 

(c)  philosophy,  wigwam,  unique,  mutton,  hypnotism,  floun- 
der; 

(d)  adobe,  pander,  algebra,  omnibus,  architecture,  sherry; 

(e)  eclogue,  aeroplane,  retrogression,  incarnadine,  impassive, 
hydraulic. 

6.  Are  the  following  expressions  in  good  use?  Consult  the  dic- 
tionaries. 

reckon,  nights,  to  fire  out,  settle  the  hash,  pal,  pulling  the 
wires,  cinch,  blizzard,  swallow-tail,  in  the  soup,  monkey  with, 
stranded,  kick  the  bucket,  try  it  on  the  dog,  go  back  on  your 
word,  freeze  to. 

7.  Distinguish  between  the  words  in  the  following  groups:  — 
thing,  affair;  timber,  lumber;  notice,  mention;  puerile,  juve- 
nile; homicide,  murder;  writer,  author;  ingenious,  ingenu- 
ous; drink,  quaff;  word,  term;  invent,  discover;  human,  hu- 
mane; whole,  complete,  entire;  single,  sole,  unique,  solitary; 
abominable,  execrable;  illusion,  delusion;  tale,  story;  say, 
tell;  spurt,  spout;  method,  manner;  way,  means;  speak,  talk; 
astronomy, astrology;  generally, usually;  foresight, providence; 
fable,  parable. 

EXERCISES   ON   SYNONYMS 

1.  Find  as  many  words  as  possible  which  you  consider  to  be 
exactly  synonymous.  Look  them  up  in  the  dictionary  and  see  if 
there  is  any  distinction  to  be  made. 

2.  Find  the  precise  distinction  to  be  made  between:  — 

rich,  wealthy  pause,  interval 

indifferent,  callous  disconnected,  interrupted 

silent,  quiet  collect,  assemble 

swift,  rapid  facsimile,  copy 

nimble,  agile  semblance,  similitude 

clothing,  costume  bright,  vivid 

vesture,  attire  gaudy,  showy 

interpose,  interject  certain,  infallible 

origin,  source  cognizant  of,  acquainted  with 

ascribe,  attribute  hackneyed,  trite 

approaching,  impending  erudite,  learned 

new,  novel  extensive,  vast 


132  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

transient,  evanescent  actual,  veritable 

temporary,  provisional  vertical,  perpendicular 

perpetual,  eternal  engaged,  occupied 

3.  Make  a  list  of  words  which  you  hear  on  the  campus  or  at  home 
which  are  vague  and  general  because  the  user  lacks  a  knowl- 
edge of  synonyms  or  fails  to  use  a  more  exact  term;  e.g.,  great 
is  often  used  instead  of  good,  excellent,  interesting,  amusing, 
novel,  or  surprising.  Find  approximate  equivalents  for  the 
words  on  your  list. 

4.  Take  a  stanza  of  poetry  or  a  paragraph  of  prose  and  para- 
phrase it,  i.e.,  express  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  ideas  in 
your  own  words. 

5.  Translate  into  English  a  passage  from  Greek,  Latin,  Italian, 
Spanish,  French,  or  German.  Give  as  many  equivalents  as 
possible  for  each  of  the  foreign  words,  and  then  select  those 
that  most  accurately  express  the  author's  meaning. 

REFERENCES 

Aikin,  W.  A.    The  Voice;  an  Introduction  to  Practical  Phonology. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Composition  Oral  and  Written,  pp.  126-41;  147-62. 

Bell,  R.  H.    The  Changing  Values  of  English  Speech. 

Brown  and  Barnes.   The  Art  of  Writing  English,  pp.  83-118. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.   Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  201-38. 

Cody,  Sherwin.  The  Art  of  Writing  and  Speaking  the  English  Lan- 
guage.   Word  Study,  pp.  44-90. 

Emerson,  O.  F.    The  History  of  the  English  Language. 

Espenshade,  A.  H.  Essentials  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  287- 
329. 

Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold.  Manual  of  Composition  and 
Rhetoric,  pp.  345-70. 

Greenough,  J.  B.   Words  and  their  Ways  in  English  Speech. 

Herrick  and  Damon.  New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools,  pp. 
221-54. 

Hill,  A.  S.   Beginnings  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  pp.  379-411. 

Hill,  A.  S.   Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  74-246. 

Jones,  D.  D.   The  Technigue  of  Speech. 

Krapp,  G.  P.   Modern  English. 

Linn,  J.  W.   The  Essentials  of  English  Composition,  pp.  86-101. 

Lockwood,  S.  E.  H.  Lessons  in  English,  pp.  1-65. 

Nesfield,  J.  C.  Manual  of  English  Grammar  and  Composition 
pp.  211-65;  304-40. 

Newcomer  and  Seward.  Rhetoric  in  Practice,  pp.  136-64;  292-309. 


SOME  COMMON  LATIN  ROOTS 


133 


Notes,  E.  C.   Basic  Principles  in  Oral  English. 

Scott,  F.  N.  Essays  on  Style,  Rhetoric,  and  Language,  pp.  195-233. 

Skeat,  W.  W.  English  Dialects  from  the  Eighth  Century  to  the  Present 

Day. 
Smith,  L.  Pearsall.    The  English  Language. 
Taylor,  Isaac.   Words  and  Places. 

Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  187-201. 
Ward,  C.  C.  Oral  Composition. 


5.  SOME  COMMON  LATIN  ROOTS 


[Note:  Genitives  of  nouns  and 
given  unless  they  are  likely  to  be 

acer,  sharp 

ager,  field 

ago,  agere,  egi,  actum,  to  rouse  or 

stimulate 
albus,  white 
alter,  other 
amare,  to  love 
ambulare,  to  walk 
amicus,  friend 
amor,  love 
annus,  ring  or  year 
aqua,  water 
arare.  to  plough 
audio,  audire,  audivi,  auditum,  to 

hear 
aurum,  gold 
avis,  bird 
bene,  good  or  well 
bonus,  good 
bos,  bovis,  ox 
brevis,  short 
cado,  cadere,   cecedi,   casum,  to 

fall 
canis,  dog 
cantare,  to  sing 
capio,   capere,   cepi,   captum,  to 

take 
cedo,  cedere,  cessi,  cessum,  to  go 
celer,  quick 
centum,  a  hundred 
cor,  cordis,  heart 
corpus,  corporis,  body 


principal  parts  of  verbs  are  not 
needed  for  simple  word-analysis.] 

crux,  crucis,  cross 

dexter,  right 

deus,  god 

dominus,  master 

domus,  house 

dormire,  to  sleep 

duo,  two 

dux,  ducis,  leader 

ego,  I 

eo,  ire,  ivi.  itum,  to  go 

facio,  facere,  feci,  factum,  to  do 

or  make 
felix,  happy 

fero,  ferre,  tuli,  latum,  to  carry 
fidus,  faithful 
finis,  end 
fortis,  strong 
frater,  brother 
habeo,   habere,   habui,   habitum, 

to  have  or  hold 
homo,  hominis,  man 
juvenis,  young 
lac,  lactis,  milk 
lego,  legere,  legi,  lectum,  to  read 

or  to  pick  out 
leo,  leonis,  lion 
lex,  legis,  law 
liber,  book 
liber,  free 
lingua,  tongue 
locus,  place 
lux,  lucis,  light 


134 


THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 


magister,  master 

mater,  mother 

manus,  hand 

mare,  maris,  sea 

medium,  middle 

mirare,  to  wonder 

miser,  wretched 

mitto,  mittere,  misi,  missum,  to 

send 
navis,  ship 
niger,  black 
nihil,  nothing 
novus,  new 
nox,  noctis,  night 
pater,  father 
pendo,  pendere,  pependi,  pensum, 

to  hang 
pes,  pedis,  foot 
plicare,  to  fold 
pono,  ponere,  posui,  positum,  to 

put 
porta,  door 

princeps,  principis,  chief  or  leader 
ridere,  to  laugh 


scribo,  scribere,  scripsi,  scriptum, 

to  write 
senex,  old 
soror,  sister 
spirare,  to  breathe 
sto,  stare,  steti,  statum,  to  stand 
terra,  earth  or  land 
traho,  trahere,  traxi,  tractum,  to 

draw 
umbra,  shadow 
unus,  one 
urbs,  urbis,  city 
velox,  swift 
venio,  venire,    veni,  ventum,  to 

come 
Veritas,  truth 
verto,  vertere,  verti,  versum,  to 

turn 
video,  videre,  vidi,  visum,  to  see 
vir,  man 
virtus,  strong 

vivo,  vivere,  vixi,  victum,  to  live 
vocare,  to  call 
volo,  velle,  volui,  to  wish 
vox,  vocis,  voice 


Prefix 

Meaning 

a,  ab 

from,  away 

a,  an 

without,  not 

ad 

to 

ambi 

around,  both 

ante 

before 

auto 

self 

anti 

against,  opposite 

bene 

well 

bi 

two,  twice 

circum 

around 

con 

together,  with 

contra 

against 

de 

from,  down  from 

dia 

apart,  away,  opposite 

dia 

through,  around 

epi 

upon 

eu 

well 

ex 

out  of,  from 

hetero 

different 

hypo,  hyph 

under 

6.   PREFIXES 

Examples 
abnormal,  abdicate,  avert,  absent 
aseptic,  ansesthetic 
adjust,  adjourn,  administer 
ambidextrous,  ambiguous 
anteroom,  antedate,  antecedent 
automatic,  automobile,  autograph 
antithesis,  antagonist,  antarctic,  antipodes 
beneficent,  benediction 
bisect,  bicycle,  biscuit 
circumscribe,  circumvent,  circumstance 
concur,  connect,  contend 
contradict,  contraband,  contrast 
dejected,  delegate,  degrade,  dethrone 
not   dispatch,    dismiss,   dishonor,   disappear, 
dismount 
diameter,  dialogue,  diagonal 
epitaph,  epiphenomenon,  epigram 
euphemism, euphony 
expel,  exodus,  exhume,  export 
heterodox,  heterogeneous 
hypothesis,  hypocrite,  hyphen 


SUFFIXES 


135 


Prefix 


Meaning 


not 


in,  en 
inter 

intro 

mono 

non 

ob 

pan 

per 

peri 

post 

pro 

re 

retro 

se 

semi 

sub 

super 

syn 

tele 

trans 

tri 

ultra 
un,  uni 


in,  into,  among 
between 

within,  against 

single 

not 

against,  in  the  way 

whole,  all 

fully,  through 

around,  about 

after 

for,  forward 

back,  again 

backward 

aside 

half,  partly 

under 

over,  above 

together  with 

afar 

beyond,  across 

three,  thrice 

beyond 

one 


Examples 

inconsistent,  inelegant,  infirm,  inexpen- 
sive 

invade,  include,  entice 

interpose,  interurban,  intervene,  inter- 
course 

introspective,  introduce 

monograph,  monorail,  monarchy 

non-alcoholic,  nonentity,  nonsense 

obtrude,  obstruct,  object 

Pan-American,  pantheist,  panorama 

pervert,  perfervid,  perpetual,  perspire 

perimeter,  peristyle,  periphrasis 

postpone,  postmortem,  postscript,  posthu- 
mous 

propose,  programme,  proceed,  protract, 
pronoun,  prophet 

renew,  reiterate,  repress,  rejoin 

retrospect,  retrograde 

seclude,  secede,  segregate,  secure 

semi-circular,  semi-annual 

subway,  subnormal,  subject,  subsist 

supercilious,  superfine,  superficial 

synthesis,  syntax,  syndicate 

telescope,  telephone,  telegraph 

transgress,  transatlantic,  transmit,  trans- 
late 

trisect,  triangle,  triplets 

ultramontane,  ultramarine,  ultraliberal 

unicorn,  unanimous 


Suffix 
-able,  -ible 

-ace,  -acy 
-ance,  -ancy 

-age 

-al,  -eal,  -ial 
-an,  -ean,  -ian 
-ant 
-ar,  -er 

-ary 

-ate 


-cle,  -acle 
-icle,  -cule 
-ee 

-eer 


Meaning 
capable  of  being 

state  of  being 

act  or  condition 


\  relating  to,  that  which, 
|       on  account  of 
one  who,  relating  to 

!adj.:     being 
noun:  one  who 
relating  to,  like 
(  adj.:     relating  to 
\  noun:  one  who 
(  place  where 


SUFFIXES 

Examples 

serviceable,  credible 

disturbance,  obedience,  disgrace,  men- 
ace, secrecy,  continuance,  privacy, 
bankruptcy,  constancy 

dotage,  marriage,  bondage,  pilgrimage, 
breakage 

judicial,  credentials, 
refusal 

American,  statistician,  human,  pagan 

resonant,  vacant 

attendant,  servant 

lunar,  vulgar,  solar,  spectacular 

residuary,  contrary 

dignitary 

sanctuary 


having  quality  of  fortunate,  desolate,  accurate 


one  who 
to  make 


|  adj.: 

noun: 
,  verb: 

little 


one  who  is 
(object  of  action) 
one  who  does 
(subject  of  action) 


prelate,  advocate 

celebrate,  agitate,  stimulate, 

animalcule,  particle,  molecule, 

pinnacle 
trustee,  employee,  biographee, 

devotee 
pamphleteer,  auctioneer,  engineer, 

volunteer 


136 


THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 


Suffix 

Meaning 

(  (1)  little 
\  (2)  made  of 

-en 

-ence  \ 
-ency  ) 

state  or  quality  of 

-ent 

(adj.:     being 
1  noun:  one  who 

-et,  -let 

little 

-fio 

causing,  producing 

-fy,  -ify 

to  make 

-hood 

state,  condition 

-ic 

like,  made  of 

-ice 

that  which 

-id 

pertaining  to 

-ile 

relating  to 

-ion 

act  or  state  of  being 

-ity,  -ty 

state  or  quality  of  being 

-ist,  -ite 

one  who 

-ive 

relating  to 

-iae,  -ize 

to  make 

-kin 

little 

-lesa 

without 

-ment 

state  of  being,  act 

-or,  -ar,  -er 

one  who,  that  which 

(  relating  to,  place  where 

-ory 

(  that  which 

-ose,  -ou3 

abounding  in 

-some 

full  of 

-tude,  -itude 

condition,  quality  of 

-ule 

little 

-ure 

act,  state,  that  which 

-ward 

turning  to 

-wright 

doer,  worker 

Examples 

maiden,  kitten 

earthen,  golden 

independence,  violence, 
dependency 

dependent,  patient 

resident,  student,  president 

lancet,  pocket,  locket,  leaflet,  rivulet 

soporific,  terrific,  beatific 

magnify,  simplify,  pacify,  modify,  crucify 

motherhood,  manhood,  knighthood 

plastic,  magic,  tragic,  dramatic 

artifice 

squalid,  placid,  morbid 

puerile,  imbecile,  servile 

coercion,  fusion 

unity,  vicinity,  falsity,  cruelty 

optimist,   theist,   colonist,  suburbanite, 
dentist,  anchorite 

legislative,  decorative,  captive 

colonize,  memorize 

napkin,  lambkin 

hopeless,  worthless,  sleepless 

amendment,  development,  concealment, 
nourishment 

elector,  engraver,  sailor 

dormitory,   factory,   directory,  ambula- 
tory, compulsory,  dilatory 

verbose,   grandiose,   beauteous,   Jocose, 
dangerous 

troublesome,  quarrelsome,  burdensome 

beatitude,  aptitude,  servitude 

capsule,  globule 

tenure,  expenditure,  seizure,  verdure 

heavenward,  earthward,  forward,  north- 
ward 

cartwright,  shipwright 


8.  ENGLISH  WORDS  FOR  ANALYSIS 

[After  the  student  has  memorized  the  list  of  Latin  roots  on  page 
133,  and  the  prefixes  and  suffixes  on  pages  134  and  135,  he  will  be 
able  to  tell  from  what  Latin  words  the  English  words  in  the  following 
list  have  been  derived.  He  will  see,  for  instance,  that  velocipede  is 
from  velox  and  pes;  that  rejuvenate  is  from  re  (prefix),  juvenis,  and  ate 
(suffix),  etc.] 

lucent  library  legitimate 

translucent  legal  lacteal 

pellucid  crucify  brevity 

collocation  cruciform  perambulator 

dislocate  incorporeal  acrid 

linguistic  election  aviary 

liberty  legible  beneficial 


ENGLISH  WORDS  FOR  ANALYSIS 


137 


egotist 

captivate 

corporeal 

bovine 

incantation 

subterranean 

agricultural 

cantata 

juvenile 

liberate 

ambulance 

reinstate 

predominate 

abbreviate 

distract 

dominion 

celerity 

contract 

infinite 

deity 

protracted 

fortify 

dual 

risibility 

fraternize 

felicity 

pedestrian 

confident 

defer 

inscription 

centennial 

reference 

script 

semi-annual 

sorority 

revision 

dexterity 

magistrate 

ambidextrous 

incorporate 

paternal 

alternate 

manufacture 

state 

impend 

marine 

statue 

commission 

missionary 

suburban 

repository 

dismiss 

convocation 

perennial 

admission 

invisible 

auditory 

remit 

virtuous 

preference 

admiration 

involuntary 

conference 

miserable 

umbrageous 

precede 

annihilate 

captivity 

factory 

naval 

receptive 

perfect 

negro 

receipt 

leonine 

equinox 

encourage 

rejuvenate 

pedestal 

cardiac 

inception 

velocipede 

auriferous 

reversion 

verity 

arable 

senility 

virile 

ridiculous 

amicable 

complicate 

portal 

proscribe 

implicate 

manual 

albino 

suspense 

convene 

habit 

dependent 

intervention 

recede 

inspiration 

prevent 

statute 

conspiracy 

domestic 

occasion 

invert 

agitate 

vivify 

perspiration 

amorous 

composite 

vivacious 

concede 

renovate 

dormitory 

principal 

album 

perception 

interurban 

export 

138 


THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 


9.    THE  IDIOMATIC    USE   OF  PREPOSITIONS 


abatement  of 

abhorrence  of 

absolve  from 

abstain  from 

accord  to  (trans.) 

accord  with  (intrans.) 

accuse  of 

acquit  of 

adapted  for  (by  nature,  for  a  pur- 
pose) 

adapted  to  (to  a  thing,  intention- 
ally) 

adjacent  to 

advanced  towards 

adverse  to 

affinity  to  or  between 

afraid  of 

agreeable  to 

agree  to  (proposals) 

agree  among 

agree  with  (persons) 

angry  at  (things  or  persons) 

angry  with  (person) 

ashamed  of 

attend  to  (something) 

attend  upon  (person) 

averse  to 

avoidance  of 

bestow  upon 

boast  of 

call  upon,  on  (person) 

call  for  (thing) 

careful  of 

careless  of 

change  for  (a  thing) 

change  with  (a  person) 

coincident  with 

compare  with 

comply  with 
concur  with  or  in 
confer  on  (trans.) 
confer  with  (intrans.) 
confide  in  (intrans.) 


confide  to  (with)   (Trans.) 

conform  to  (with) 

confused  with,  by 

consisted  of 

consonant  with,  by 

convenient  to  (a  person) 

convenient  for  (a  purpose) 

conversant  with 

convert  to,  into 

correspond  to  (things) 

correspond  with  (persons) 

deal  in  (things) 

deal  with  (persons) 

dependent  on  or  upon 

derived  from 

derogate  from 

derogatory  to 

deserving  of 

desist  from 

devoted  to 

die  of,  by 

differ  from  (statement,  opinion) 

differ  with  (person) 

different  from  (not  to) 

diminution  of 

disappointed  in  (thing  obtained) 

disappointed   of    (thing  not   ob- 
tained) 

dissent  from 

diverge  from 

empty  of 

entrust  to 

exception  to  (a  statement) 

expert  in 

far  from 

fit  for 

fixed  upon 

free  from 

frightened  at,  by 

full  of 

give  to 

glad  of,  at 

independent  of 


THE  IDIOMATIC  USE  OF  PREPOSITIONS      139 


inferior  to 

insist  upon 

involve  in 

lay  hold  of,  on 

listen  to 

aaartyr  for  (cause) 

martyr  to  (disease) 

need  of,  for 

obedient  to 

observance  of 

opposed  to 

outraged  by 

part  from  (person) 

part  with  (thing) 

pleased  with 

prejudice  against 

prejudicial  to 

present  with,  to 

prevail  upon,  over 

profit  by 

proud  of 

reconcile  to  (person) 

reconcile  with  (thing,  statement) 

recreant  to 


refrain  from 

regardless  of 

replete  with 

resemblance  to 

resolve  on 

restrain  from 

similar  to 

subordinate  to 

suitable  for 

superior  to 

sympathize  with 

take  hold  of 

talk  with,  to 

taste  (noun)  for  (art) 

taste  (verb)  of  (food) 

think  of 

thirst  for,  after  (knowledge) 

tired  of  (thing) 

tired  with  (action) 

trust  in,  to 

unmindful  of 

wait  for  (person,  thing) 

wait  upon  (person) 

worthy  of 


REFERENCES 

Baker  and  Abbott.  English  Composition,  pp.  143-76. 

Bell,  R.  H.   The  Changing  Values  of  English  Speech. 

Butler,  G.  P.  School  English,  pp.  13-118. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.  Exercises  in  Rhetoric  and  English  Composition, 
pp.  18-38. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.   Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  24-57. 

Cody,  Sherwin.  The  Art  of  Writing  and  Speaking  the  English  Lan- 
guage. Dictionary  of  Errors. 

Espenshade,  A.  H.  Essentials  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  287- 
317. 

Gaskell,  G.  A.   How  to  Write  for  the  Press,  pp.  45-60. 

Genung,  J.  F.    The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  46-138. 

Greenough,  J.  B.  Words  and  their  Ways  in  English  Speech,  pp.  55- 
79. 

Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Composition,  pp.  142-66. 

Herrick  and  Damon.  New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools,  pp. 
145-67;  246-366. 

Hill,  A.  S.   Beginnings  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  pp.  412-95. 


140 


THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 


Hill,  A.  S.   Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  1-73. 

Hitchcock,  A.  M.   Rhetoric  and  the  Study  of  Literature,  pp.  6-68. 

Knowles,  F.  L.   Practical  Hints  for  Young  Writers,  pp.  18-32. 

Krapp,  G.  P.   Modern  English,  pp.  183-285. 

Lockwood,  S.  E.  H.  Lessons  in  English,  pp.  118-78. 

Matthews,  Brander.   Parts  of  Speech. 

Nesfield,  J.  C.    Manual  of  English  Grammar  and  Composition,  pp. 

150-209. 
Nesfield,  J.  C.  Senior  Course  of  English  Composition,  pp.  19-106. 
Nichol,  John.  English  Composition,  pp.  33-63. 
Shaw,  Edward  R.  English  Composition  by  Practice,  pp.  29-54;  125- 

38;  153-74. 
Strang,  H.  I.  Exercises  in  English,  pp.  82-93. 
Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  161-87. 
Thorndike,  A.  H.   Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  pp.  278- 

321. 
Williams,  R.  O.  Some  Questions  of  Good  English. 
Williams,  William.   Composition  and  Rhetoric  by  Practice,  pp.  38- 

145. 
Wendell,  Barrett.  English  Composition,  pp.  41-75. 
Woolley,  E.  C.  Handbook  of  Composition,  pp.  143-71. 


io.  FOREIGN   WORDS   COMMONLY  USED   IN   ENGLISH 

[It  is  to  be  noted  that  of  these  words  a  small  proportion  have 
already  become  established  as  good  English,  many  are  undergoing 
the  process  of  being  anglicized,  and  a  few  are  still  actual  foreign 
words.] 


addendum,  L. 
al  fresco,  It. 
alias,  L. 
alibi,  L. 
alumnus,  L. 
amanuensis,  L. 
animus,  L. 
a  propos,  F. 
atelier,  F. 
bagatelle,  F. 
bijou,  F. 
bizarre,  F. 
blase,  F. 
bonhomie,  F. 
bonne,  F. 
bourgeois,  F. 
camaraderie,  F. 


campanile,  It. 
canaille,  F. 
caveat,  L. 
cerise,  F. 
champignon,  F. 
chapeau,  F. 
chateau,  F. 
chatelaine,  F. 
chef,  F. 
chic,  F. 
clientele,  F. 
coiffure,  F. 
concierge,  F. 
confrere,  F. 
contretemps,  F. 
cortege,  F. 
datum,  L. 


debris,  F. 
debut,  F. 
d6collet<§,  F. 
d6nouement,  F. 
dictum,  L. 
difficile,  F. 
dilettante,  It. 
distrait,  F. 
6clat,  F. 
embonpoint,  F. 
encore,  F. 
endimanche,  F. 
ennui,  F. 
ensemble,  F. 
entree,  F. 
entrepreneur,  F. 
erratum,  L. 


FOREIGN  WORDS 


141 


exit,  L. 
ex/empore,  L. 
1'agade,  F. 
fakir,  Hind, 
fiance,  F. 
fiasco,  It. 
fiat,  L. 
finis,  L. 
foyer,  F. 
fracas,  F. 
garcon,  F. 
gaucherie,  F. 
genre,  F. 
gratis,  L. 
hareem,  Arab, 
imbroglio,  It. 
interim,  L. 


kiosk,  Turk, 
legerdemain,  F. 
litterateur,  F. 
masseur,  F. 
matinee,  F. 
meerschaum,  Ger. 
menage,  F. 
nuance,  F. 
parvenu,  F. 
passe-partout,  F. 
pension,  F. 
personnel,  F. 
porte  cochere,  F. 
pourquois,  F. 
protege,  F. 
quasi,  L. 
raconteur,  F. 


recherche,  F. 
repertoire,  F. 
resume,  F. 
r61e,  F. 
savant,  F. 
seance,  F. 
serviette,  F. 
siesta,  Sp. 
soi  disant,  F. 
soiree,  F. 
stet,  L. 
supra,  L. 
vale,  L. 
valet,  F. 
versus,  L. 
vide,  L. 


Note  :  Careful  distinction  should  be  made  between  mascu- 
line and  feminine  forms  in  those  words  which  have  retained 
their  foreign  gender-inflections. 

The  French  adjective  ending  in  e  is  masculine,  and  that 
ending  in  ee  is  feminine :  — 

deshabille,  deshabillee;  ne,  nee;  decolletee. 

French  nouns  derived  from  adjectives  ending  in  e  or  ee 
usually  preserve  a  gender  distinction :  — 

fiance,  fiancee;  -protege,  -protegee;  divorce,  divorcee. 

The  word  employee  has  become  established  in  the  feminine 
form,  but  is  applied  to  workers  of  both  sexes;  some  careful 
people,  however,  distinguish  between  employe  and  employee. 
A  few  words  have  come  over  to  us  as  feminines  and  retain 
the  be:  — 

matinee;  negligee;  entree. 

Some  French  nouns  ending  in  eur  retain  the  foreign  dis- 
tinctions for  gender :  — 

masseur,  masseuse;  poseur,  poseuse;  raconteur,  raconteuse. 
The  Latin  alumnus  retains  its  foreign  forms:  — ■ 
Masculine:  Singular,  alumnus;  plural,  alumni. 
Feminine:  Singular,  alumna;  plural,  alumna. 

The  use  of  foreign  words  and  phrases  is  not  in  good  taste;  it 
is  likely  to  be  regarded  as  an  affectation.  There  are  a  few  situa- 


142 


THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 


tions  which  permit  the  use  of  foreign  words  because  there  are 
no  established  English  words  which  will  serve  the  purpose;  in 
such  cases,  no  one  will  take  exception  to  the  introduction  of 
words  from  another  language. 


ii.  PHRASES   FROM   FOREIGN   LANGUAGES 


a  bas,  F.,  down  with 

ab  ovo,  L.,  from  the  egg;  from  the 
beginning 

ad  infinitum,  L.,  on  to  eternity; 
for  ever 

ad  libitum,  L.,  at  pleasure 

ad  valorem,  L.,  according  to 
value 

aetatis,  L.,  of  age;  aged  [abbrev., 
set.] 

a  fortiori,  L.,  with  stronger  reason 

a  la,  F.,  in  the  manner  of 

a  la  carte,  F.,  according  to  the  bill 
of  fare 

a  la  mode,  F.,  in  the  usual  way; 
fashionably 

alma  mater,  L.,  benign  mother; 
the  college  from  which  one  has 
been  graduated 

amende  honorable,  F.,  satisfac- 
tory reparation  or  atonement 

amour  propre,  F.,  self-love;  van- 
ity 

annus  mirabilis,  L.,  a  year  of 
wonders 

a  posteriori,  L.,  from  effect  to 
cause 

a  priori,  L.,  from  cause  to  effect 

aqua  vitse,  L.,  water  of  life;  alco- 
hol; brandy 

argumentum  ad  absurdum,  L.,  an 
argument  carried  to  absurd 
lengths 

au  fait,  F.,  well  informed;  com- 
plete 

au  revoir,  F.,  until  we  meet  again; 
good-bye 


auto  da  fe,  Port.,  the  burning  of 
heretics;  literally,  "an  act  of 
faith." 

bas  bleu,  F.,  blue-stocking;  a  lit- 
erary woman 

belles  lettres,  F.,  polite  litera- 
ture 

bete  noire,  F.,  something  espe- 
cially disliked  or  feared 

billet  doux,  F.,  a  love  letter 

bona  fide,  L.,  in  good  faith;  genu- 
ine 

bon  jour,  F.,  good  day;  how  do 
you  do? 

bon  mot,  F.,  a  jest;  a  witticism 

bon  vivant,  F.,  a  jolly  fellow;  one 
who  lives  well 

bon  voyage,  F.,  a  pleasant  jour- 
ney 

bric-a-brac,  F.,  miscellaneous  or- 
naments in  a  house 

carte  blanche,  F.,  complete  lib- 
erty 

casus  belli,  L.,  the  cause  of  strife 

cause  celebre,  F.,  a  celebrated 
case 

chef  d'ceuvre,  F.,  a  masterpiece 

comme  il  faut,  F.,  as  it  should  be; 
proper 

compos  mentis,  L.,  of  sound  mind 

coup  d'etat,  F.,  a  stroke  of  states- 
manship 

coup  de  grace,  F.,  finishing  stroke 

cul  de  sac,  F.,  a  blind  alley 

cum  grano  salis,  L.,  with  a  grain 
of  ealt;  with  some  allowance 

cum  laude,  L.,  with  praise 


PHRASES  FROM  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES       143 


de  bonne  heure,  F.,  early;  in  good 
time 

de  facto,  L.,  in  fact;  actually  ex- 
isting or  done;  (Law)  without 
reference  to  title 

de  novo,  L.,  anew;  from  the  be- 
ginning 

Deo  volente,  L.,  God  being  will- 
ing; [abbrev.,  D.V.] 

dernier  cri,  F.,  the  latest  thing 

de  trop,  F.,  out  of  place;  not 
wanted ;  superfluous 

deus  ex  machina,  L.,  a  god  from 
the  machine;  a  person  who  ar- 
ranges a  difficulty  with  incred- 
ible ease 

dolce  far  niente,  It.,  sweet  idle- 
ness 

dramatis  personae,  L.,  the  people 
of  a  play 

eau  de  vie,  F.,  water  of  life; 
brandy 

enfant  terrible,  F.,  a  terrible  child 

en  route,  F.,  on  the  way 

entente  cordiale,  F.,  cordial  un- 
derstanding 

entr'acte,  F.,  interval  between 
acts  at  the  theater;  music 
played  between  acts 

en  train,  F.,  about  to 

entre  nous,  F.,  between  ourselves 

e  pluribus  unum,  L.,  one  out  of 
many 

esprit  de  corps,  F.,  the  animating 
spirit  of  a  group  of  people 

et  caetera,  L.,  and  so  forth;  [ab- 
brev., etc.] 

et  sequentia,  L.,  and  following 

ewig  weibliche,  Ger.,  the  eternal 
feminine 

ex  cathedra,  L.,  from  the  chair  of 
authority 

ex  officio,  L.,  by  virtue  of  office 

ex  post  facto,  L.,  by  a  subsequent 
act 


faute  de  mieux,  F.,  for  lack  of 
better 

faux  pas,  F.,  a  blunder 

Fidus  Achates,  L.,  a  faithful 
friend 

fin  de  siecle,  F.,  end  of  the  cerj 
tury;  modern 

flagrante  delicto,  L.,  in  the  com- 
mission of  the  crime 

genius  loci,  L.,  the  spirit  of  the 
place 

habeas  corpus,  L.,  "have  the 
body  " ;  a  writ  to  produce  a  per- 
son before  a  court 

hie  jacet,  L.,  here  lies 

hors  de  combat,  F.,  out  of  the 
struggle;  vanquished 

hors  d'eeuvre,  F.,  a  side-dish 

infra  dignitatem,  L.,  beneath 
one's  dignity;  (abbrev.,  infra 
dig.) 

in  loco  parentis,  L.,  in  place  of  the 
parent 

in  medias  res,  L.,  in  the  midst  of 
things 

in  statu  quo,  L.,  in  the  same  con- 
dition 

in  toto,  L.,  entirely 

ipse  dixit,  L.,  he  himself  said  it;  a 
hard  and  fast  dogma 

ipso  facto,  L.,  by  the  deed  itself 

laissez  faire,  F.,  let  things  take 
their  course 

lapsus  linguae,  L.,  a  slip  of  the 
tongue 

locum  tenens,  L.,  proxy;  substi- 
tute 

magnum  bonum,  L.,  a  great  good 

magnum  opus,  L.,  a  great  work 

mauvaise  honte,  F.,  false  mod- 
esty; shyness 

mens  sana  in  corpore  sano,  L.,  a 
sound  mind  in  a  sound  body 

mirabile  dictu,  L.,  wonderful  tc 
say 


144 


THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 


modus  operandi,  L.,  way  of  do- 
ing; method 

multum  in  parvo,  L.,  much  in  lit- 
tle 

mutatis  mutandis,  L.,  necessary 
changes  being  made 

ne  plus  ultra,  L.,  nothing  more 
beyond;  the  end 

nom  de  plume,  F.,  pen  name; 
pseudonym 

non  sequitur,  L.,  it  does  not  fol- 
low; an  unwarranted  conclu- 
sion 

nota  bene,  L.,  take  notice;  [ab- 
brev.  N.B.] 

nouveau  riche,  F.,  a  newly-rich 
person 

obiter  dictum,  L.,  said  in  passing 

on  dit,  F.,  they  say 

par  excellence,  F.,  of  the  highest 
type 

pari  passu,  L.,  with  equal  pace; 
together 

per  capita,  L.,  by  the  head 

per  se,  L.,  considered  by  itself 

persona  non  grata,  L.,  an  unde- 
sired  person 

piece  de  resistance,  F.,  the  most 
substantial  dish  at  a  meal 

pinxit,  L.,  he  painted  it 

point  d'appui,  F.,  point  of  sup- 
port 

Poste  Restante,  F.,  General  De- 
livery 

pour-boire,  F.,  drink  money,  tip 

pour  prendre  cong6,  F.,  to  say 
good-bye;  [abbrev.  P.P.C.] 

post  mortem,  L.,  after  death 

prima  facie,  L.,  on  the  first  view 

pro  tempore,  L.,  for  the  time 
being 

quid  pro  quo,  L.,  one  thing  for 

another 
quien  sabe,  Sp.,  who  knows? 


raison  d'etre,  F.,  a  reason  for  ex- 
isting 

sang  froid,  F.,  cool  blood;  com- 
posure 

savoir  faire,  F.,  presence  of  mind; 
skill,  tact 

savoir  vivre,  F.,  good  breeding; 
easy  manners 

semper  idem,  L.,  always  the 
same 

sine  die,  L.,  without  a  day  ap- 
pointed 

sine  qua  non,  L.,  a  necessary  con- 
dition 

sotto  voce,  It.,  in  an  undertone 

sui  generis,  L.,  of  its  own  species; 
unique 

tableaux  vivants,  F.,  living  pic- 
tures 

table  d'h6te,  F.,  public  dining- 
table;  a  meal  served  at  a  fixed 
price 

tant  pis,  F.,  so  much  the  worse 

tempus  fugit,  L.,  time  flies 

terra  firm  a,  L.,  solid  earth 

tete-a-tete,  F.,  opposite;  in  pri- 
vate conference 

tout-a-1'heure,  F.,  presently 

tres  bien,  F.,  very  well 

ultima  Thule,  L.,  the  furthest 
limit 

vade  mecum,  L.,  "go  with  me"; 
a  constant  companion 

veni,  vidi,  vici,  L.,  I  came,  I  saw, 
I  conquered 

verbatim  et  literatim,  L.,  liter- 
ally; word  for  word 

via  media,  L.,  a  middle  course 

vice  versa,  L.,  in  the  contrary 
fashion 

vis-a-vis,  F.,  opposite;  facing 

viva  voce,  L.,  by  word  of  mouth 

vox  populi,  L.,  the  voice  of  the 
people 


STYLE  145 

12.  STYLE 

I .  Relation  of  content  to  form. 

1.  There  are  two  factors  or  elements  which  go  to 
make  up  a  piece  of  literary  composition,  whether 
it  be  written  or  spoken :  — 

(a)  Material,    subject-matter,    content,    or   sub- 
stance. 
(6)  Method,  manner,  style. 

Both  of  these  are  found  in  all  written  work,  as 
in  every  other  kind  of  fine  art.  Just  as  the  quan- 
tity or  the  quality  of  the  subject-matter  varies  in 
different  writers  or  in  the  same  author  at  different 
times,  so  the  amount  of  attention  given  to  method, 
or  the  quality  of  skill  displayed  in  the  style  or 
manner  of  treating  the  material,  varies  in  different 
writers  and  in  the  same  author  at  different  stages 
of  his  literary  development.  In  learning  to  write 
we  generally  become  familiar  first  with  the  more 
obvious  and  mechanical  side  of  the  process:  with 
the  collection  and  arrangement  of  the  material, 
and  with  the  qualities  which  these  processes  in- 
volve, —  accuracy,  clearness,  proportion,  and 
emphasis. 

2.  Familiarity  with  the  essential  qualities  of  good 
method  or  style  in  writing  is,  however,  no  less  im- 
portant. From  the  fact  that  it  is  less  tangible  than 
the  material  or  ideas  expressed,  and  that  it 
involves  appreciation  and  taste,  style  is  an  ele- 
ment in  composition  which  is  usually  considered 
later,  partly  because  it  involves  the  former  pro- 
cess as  a  preliminary  step,  and  partly  because  the 
writer  himself  becomes  conscious  of  style  as  a 
factor  in  writing  only  after  he  has  acquired  a  cer- 


146  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

tain  amount  of  skill  and  facility  in  handling  his 
material.  In  writing,  as  in  any  art,  style  comes 
only  after  long  practice,  observation,  and  appre- 
ciation of  the  possibilities  involved  in  the  mate- 
rial. 

3.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  where 
there  is  subject-matter  expressed  in  words,  there 
is  also  style  of  some  sort.  It  may  not  be  good  liter- 
ary style  but,  even  if  it  is  commonplace  and  un- 
trained, it  is  nevertheless  style.  In  writing,  so 
much  of  the  effect  made  upon  the  reader  depends 
upon  the  manner  in  which  the  ideas  are  expressed 
that  the  study  of  style  becomes  a  necessary  part 
of  the  training  of  any  one  who  wishes  to  write  as 
well  as  he  can.  The  best  selection  and  arrange- 
ment of  material  may  be  spoiled  by  a  lack  of  at- 
tention to  expression,  just  as  an  excellently 
constructed  address  may  fail  entirely  in  its  effect 
on  account  of  poor  delivery. 

4.  Style  is  a  relative  matter.  There  is  no  one  style 
which  is  best  at  all  times  and  for  all  subjects,  any 
more  than  in  social  history  there  has  at  all  times 
been  one  standard  for  the  manners  of  people. 
Technique  in  writing  has  changed  and  developed 
just  as  it  has  in  painting  or  music.  Style  depends 
upon  two  external  or  mechanical  conditions :  — 
(a)  The  subject. 

Not  all  subjects  call  for  the  same  manner  of 
treatment.  Serious,  formal,  and  controversial 
subjects  will  be  found  in  general  to  be  distinct 
in  style  from  those  that  are  humorous,  in- 
formal,.or  commonplace.  An  old  gentleman 
does  not  wear  the  same  cut  of  clothes  that  a 
college  student  does. 


STYLE  147 

(6)   The  occasion. 

The  purpose  for  which  the  writing  is  done 
has  an  important  influence  as  a  conditioning 
factor  in  style.  The  more  formal  or  serious  the 
occasion,  the  more  formal  and  serious  the 
style  becomes.  One  does  not  wear  the  same 
clothes  at  a  formal  dinner  as  at  business. 

2.  Style  as  an  expression  of  personality. 

Style  is  a  personal  matter.  Not  all  people  writing 
on  the  same  subject  will  express  their  ideas  in  the 
same  language,  nor  will  they  approach  the  same  idea 
from  the  same  direction.  Just  as  all  people  dress 
themselves  differently  unless  the  conventions  of  some 
particular  occasion  demand  similarity,  so  in  writing 
every  one  dresses  his  thoughts  differently  in  words, 
unless  the  occasion  (e.g.,  formal  invitation,  vote  of 
thanks)  demands  the  suppression  of  personality  to 
some  stereotyped  form  of  expression. 

It  is  when  a  man  is  not  constrained  by  subject  or 
occasion  that  his  individuality  or  personality  shows 
itself  most  strongly  and  reveals  what  manner  of  man 
he  is.  So  also  in  writing,  when  a  man  is  not  hampered 
by  the  restraints  of  subject  or  occasion,  he  reveals  his 
personality  in  writing,  —  that  is,  his  style.  Style  in 
writing,  then,  is  the  personality  of  the  author  added 
to  the  subject  which  he  is  treating.  The  commonplace 
person  will  have  a  commonplace  style.  The  student 
should  realize  at  the  outset  that  the  finest  qualities  of 
style  cannot  be  taught,  and  that  there  are  some  excel- 
lences which  cannot  be  reduced  to  rule.  Certain 
qualities  can  be  taught;  others  can  be  imitated;  the 
highest  and  the  best  can  be  developed  only  by  the 
effort  of  one's  own  will  and  because  one  has  some 
literary  talent  to  develop.   Not  every  one,  therefore, 


148  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

will  become  a  great  stylist,  but  every  one  can  learn 
to  become  a  better  or  a  more  pleasing  writer  by  con- 
scientiously paying  attention  to  the  way  in  which  he 
expresses  his  ideas,  to  the  general  tone  of  his  work,  and 
to  the  choice  of  the  particular  words  which  he  uses; 
The  careful  study  of  authors  of  good  repute  who 
have  shown  a  mastery  of  style  will  do  much 
(a)  to  develop  in  the  student  an  appreciation  of  what 
good  style  is,  just  as  listening  to  good  music  or 
visiting  great  art  galleries  will  train  the  student's 
ear  and  eye.  The  process  is  partly  emotional  and 
partly  intellectual,  and  neither  of  these  aspects 
should  be  developed  at  the  expense  of  the  other. 
(6)  to  reveal  some  of  the  special  means  by  which  the 
good  writer  obtains  his  effects.    These  may  be 
only  the  tricks  of  the  trade  or  they  may  be  the  true 
evidences  of  the  master-hand.    Details  of  tech- 
nique should  never  be  slavishly  imitated,  but 
should  be  adapted  by  the  student  to  his  own  per- 
sonal needs.    Mere  imitation  will  never  develop 
individuality. 

3.  Technique  and  (Esthetics  of  style. 

1.  The  technique  of  prose  style  is  not  a  permanently 
fixed  and  prescribed  thing.  It  has  grown  and 
developed  just  as  have  the  methods  of  any  other 
art.  The  style  of  Milton,  of  Addison,  and  of 
Carlyle,  for  instance,  represent  steps  in  this  de- 
velopment. Some  of  the  differences  are  due  to  the 
personalities  of  the  three  writers  and  some  are 
due  to  the  ideals  and  interests  of  the  literary 
ages  in  which  they  lived.  It  will  be  impossible, 
therefore,  to  lay  down  universal  rules  for  the 
technique  of  style.  The  most  that  can  be  done  is 
to  suggest  certain  practices  which  the  best  writ- 


STYLE  149 

ers  of  to-day  seek  to  avoid.  In  addition  to  keep- 
ing clear  of  these  faults,  the  writer  must  realize 
that  the  positive  development  of  style  is  a  per- 
sonal matter,  and  that  it  depends  upon  his  sensi- 
bility, his  perseverance,  and  his  own  skill  in  using 
words.  The  writer  will  do  well  to  follow  the  sug- 
gestions in  the  more  obvious  and  mechanical  rules 
for  style  given  below,  unless  it  seems  advisable 
to  disregard  them  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
some  specific  effect. 

2.  A  succession  of  very  short  sentences  should  not  be 
used  except  for  some  specific  effect,  such  as 
rapidity  in  narrative  or  emphasis  in  argument. 

3.  Sentences  should  be  constructed  in  such  a  way 
that  the  voice,  in  reading,  will  not  be  brought  to 
an  abrupt  change  or  stop  before  the  end  of  the 
thought  is  reached. 

4.  The  general  practice  of  disregarding  smoothness 
and  finish  is  to  be  guarded  against,  but  revision 
should  not  be  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
qualities  of  interest  and  emphasis  are  lost. 

5.  Gaps  in  thought  should  not  be  left  between  sen- 
tences, because  the  reader  may  not  be  able  to  see 
clearly  the  connection  of  ideas.  As  a  result,  the 
style  seems  disconnected  and  abrupt. 

6.  A  change  of  tone  between  that  of  the  beginning 
and  the  end  should  be  avoided  unless  some  good 
reason  justifies  the  variation. 

7.  It  is  not  desirable  to  introduce  too  many  or  too 
unfamiliar  allusions,  or  to  use  hackneyed  or  for- 
eign quotations. 

8.  A  straining  for  effect  and  all  obvious  artificialities 
should  be  avoided.  It  is  well  to  eliminate  any- 
thing in  vocabulary,  phraseology,  or  sentence 


150  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

structure  which  becomes  so  frequent,  obvious,  or 

artificial  as  to  be  called  a  mannerism. 

9.  Do  not  use  affected,  over-elegant,  or  flowery 

expressions. 

The  use  of  "high-flown"  sentimental  language  is 
technically  named  "fine  writing."  It  is  under  all  cir- 
cumstances to  be  eschewed.  See  Hackneyed  Expres- 
sions, pages  185-88. 

10.  Do  not  use  poetic  or  obsolete  words  in  ordinary 

discourse. 

Avoid  such  expressions  as  o'er,  'neath,  ope,  dight, 
quoth,  erst,  whilom,  morn,  eve,  swain,  kine,  cot  (for  cot- 
tage), eld,  yore,  wend,  yea,  nay,  'mid,  dwelt. 

11.  Do  not  use  we  or  any  circumlocution  for  the  pro- 
noun I. 

There  is  nothing  to  be  apologized  for  in  the  unaf- 
fected use  of  the  pronoun  in  the  first  person  singular. 

12.  Do  not  use  contractions,  except  in  very  familiar 

and  personal  discourse. 

Expressions  like  can't,  did  n't,  would  n't,  and 
have  n't  do  not  properly  belong  in  any  sort  of  serious 
literary  material  except  familiar  letters  and  the  per- 
sonal essay.  Even  in  these  forms  of  expression  they 
should  be  used  with  caution. 

13.  Do  not  use  initials,   dashes,   blanks,   or  stars 

instead  of  names. 

The  affected,  old-fashioned  method  of  abbreviating 
names  or  suggesting  them  by  symbols  is  now  considered 
bad  form.  If  you  do  not  want  to  give  a  real  name, 
invent  one. 

14.  Avoid  the  indefinite  use  of  you  and  they. 

Repetition  and  redundance 

I.  Repetition  of  important  words  should  be  avoided. 

Using  the  same  word  or  words  several  times  in  close  suc- 
cession shows  a  scanty  vocabulary  and  an  indifference  to  the 


STYLE  151 

demands  of  variety.  It  is  especially  to  be  deprecated  in  so- 
called  "literary"  discourse,  in  which  the  style  is  supposed  to 
add  to  the  interest  of  the  material. 

Undesirable:  The  stranger  had  not  stood  there  long  before 
he  heard  a  strange  sound  behind  him;  it  was  a  long  liquid 
trill,  such  as  he  had  never  heard  before. 

Here  the  words  strange,  stranger,  heard,  long,  and  before  give 
an  unpleasant  effect  of  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  writer. 

Better:  When  the  stranger  had  stood  there  onty  a  few  mo- 
ments, he  was  startled  by  a  peculiar  sound  behind  him; 
it  was  a  long  liquid  trill,  such  as  he  had  never  heard  before. 

Bad:  Many  of  the  incidents  are  real,  but  those  which  are 
not  are  so  cleverly  woven  into  the  real  ones  that  we 
almost  feel  that  the  whole  story  is  real.  The  charm  of  the 
book  lies  in  the  author's  power  to  depict  the  real  life  of 
the  English  middle  class. 

The  repetition  of  the  word  real  is  awkward.  The  whole 
passage  ought  to  be  revised. 

Caution:  Repetition  is  always  to  be  preferred  to  inaccu- 
racy or  clumsiness.  There  are  cases,  especially  in  technical 
discourse,  in  which  only  certain  words  of  specific  and  restricted 
meaning  can  be  employed  to  express  the  idea  intended;  to  at- 
tempt to  substitute  other  words  would  be  both  futile  and  irra- 
tional. There  are  times,  also,  when  trying  to  avoid  repetition 
produces  merely  a  strained  and  awkward  effect.  The  rule 
given  above  must  be  applied  with  discretion. 

2.  In  general,  a  sentence  should  not  contain  more  words 
than  are  necessary  for  the  expression  of  the  thought. 

Redundance  is  the  use  of  superfluous  words.  It  is  ordinar- 
ily the  result  of  confused  thinking;  hence  the  best  method  of 
avoiding  redundance  is  to  organize  and  define  one's  thoughts. 
Bad:  He  gave  out  a  statement  which  announced  that  the 
meeting  had  been  postponed  and  would  not  occur  until 
later. 

Better:  He  announced  that  the  meeting  had  been  post- 
poned. 

Bad:  The  autobiography  of  my  life  would  be  of  small  inter- 
est to  my  friends. 


152  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

Better:  My  autobiography  would  be  of  small  interest  to  my 

friends. 
Bad:  There  were  five  thousand  people  heard  the  speech. 
Better:  Five  thousand  people  heard  the  speech. 

Bad:  These  distinguished  celebrities  will  speak  at  the 
meeting. 

Better:  These  distinguished  persons  will  speak  at  the 
meeting. 

3.  The  double  negative  is  not  in  good  use. 

When  two  negatives  are  used  in  the  expression  of  one 
thought,  the  second  negative  counteracts  the  force  of  the  first, 
so  that  an  affirmative  idea  is  conveyed. 

Incorrect:  I  did  n't  have  no  time  for  that  sort  of  thing. 

Correct:  I  had  no  time  for  that  sort  of  thing. 

Incorrect:  I  could  n't  hardly  give  up  the  plan. 

Correct:  I  could  hardly  give  up  the  plan. 

Euphony 

1 .  Avoid  harsh  combinations  of  sound. 

To  discover  such  undesirable  combinations,  read  your  work 
aloud. 

Bad:  A  thousand  sensational  hypocrisies. 

Bad:  Sedgett's  harassing  stipulations  restrained  him  suffi- 
ciently. 

In  cases  like  those  given  above,  the  diction  must  be  com- 
pletely revised. 

2.  Avoid  jingles. 

Anything  that  suggests  rhyme  in  prose  is  objectionable. 
Bad:  I  read  in  his  eye  that  it  was  a  lie. 

I  fully  intend  to  go  on  to  the  end. 

He  spoke  of  periodical  general  physical  catastrophes. 

3.  Avoid  frequent  alliteration. 

The  use  of  alliteration  indicates  self-consciousness  and  an 
undue  straining  for  effect. 

Bad:  She  would  fain  have  forgotten  these  frivolous  fancies) 
but  they  regularly  returned. 


STYLE  153 

4.  Avoid  closely  combining  varied  forms  of  the  same 
word. 

Bad: 

(a)  The  remainder  of  the  bread  was  given  to  the  remain- 
ing victims  of  the  flood. 

(b)  I  concluded  not  to  stay  for  the  conclusion  of  the 
lecture. 

3-  Avoid   an  overfrequent   repetition   of   connectives, 

.prepositions,  and  pronouns. 

Bad:  The  observation  of  the  facts  of  the  geological  succes- 
sion of  the  forms  of  life.  Huxley. 

6.  In  general,  avoid  metrical  prose. 

Prose  that  possesses  a  distinct  rhythm  approaching  that  of 
poetry  is  likely  to  be  overfervid  and  self  conscious.  Although 
some  of  the  great  masters  of  style  have  produced  admirable 
effects  with  rhythm  in  prose,  the  beginner  does  well  to  keep  his 
work  simple  and  unpretentious,  and  to  resist  the  temptation 
to  lapse  into  meter. 

Undesirable: 

(a)  David's  song  is  the  song  of  the  vigorous  life,  the 
music  of  human  existence. 

(6)  The  figure  neither  spoke  nor  turned  to  look,  nor  gave 
the  faintest  sign  of  having  heard.  .  .  .  The  form  was 
that  of  a  forlorn  old  man.  He  and  the  failing  light 
and  dying  fire,  the  time-worn  room,  the  solitude,  the 
wasted  life,  the  gloom,  were  all  in  fellowship. 

EXERCISES  IN  THE  STUDY  OF  STYLE 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  faults  of  style  that  have  been  indicated  in 
your  themes. 

2.  What  qualities  would  you  look  for  in  the  study  of  an  author's 
style?  Arrange  these  in  order  of  importance. 

3.  Clip  from  newspapers  ten  examples  of  what  you  consider  poor 
style.  Give  your  reasons  in  each  case.  Rewrite  the  selections 
in  such  a  way  as  to  improve  the  style. 

4.  Try  to  find  in  the  pages  of  the  current  magazines  ten  examples 
of  what  you  consider  good  style. 


154  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

5.  Select  pages  from  the  Bible,  a  modern  newspaper,  Milton, 
Lyly,  Lamb,  Shakespeare,  Stevenson,  Carlyle,  Ruskin,  and 
your  favorite  writer.  Try,  in  each  case,  to  account  for  the 
individual  differences  in  style.  Is  it  a  matter  of  choice  of 
words,  of  sentence  structure,  of  mannerism? 

6.  Discuss  the  following  quotations  relating  to  style:  — 

(a)  To  have  a  specific  style  is  to  be  poor  in  speech.  Herbert 
Spencer:  Philosophy  of  Style. 

(b)  Style,  after  all,  rather  than  thought,  is  the  immortal  thing 
in  literature.  Alexander  Smith  :  Dreamthorpe. 

(c)  Style  is  the  personal  impress  which  a  writer  inevitably 
sets  upon  his  production.  Arlo  Bates:  Talks  on  Writing 
English. 

(d)  Style  is  what  gives  value  and  currency  to  thought. 
Amiel:  Journal. 

(e)  Le  style  est  de  l'homme  meme.  Buffon, 

(/)  Sincerity  is  the  first  essential  of  good  writing.  Both  the 
cardinal  virtues  of  style,  energy  and  delicacy,  depend  upon 
it.  C.  T.  Winchester:  Principles  of  Literary  Criticism. 

(g)  We  might  as  well  say  that  one  man's  shadow  is  another 
man's  shadow  as  that  the  style  of  a  really  gifted  man  can 
belong  to  any  but  himself.  It  follows  him  about  as  a 
shadow.  His  thought  and  feeling  are  personal,  and  so  his 
language  is  personal.  Newman:  The  Idea  of  a  University. 

(h)  The  form,  it  seems  to  me,  is  to  be  appreciated  after  the 
fact:  then  the  author's  choice  has  been  made,  his  standard 
has  been  indicated ;  then  we  can  follow  lines  and  directions, 
and  compare  tones  and  resemblances.  Then,  in  a  word, 
we  can  enjoy  one  of  the  most  charming  of  pleasure*. ,  we 
can  estimate  the  quality,  we  can  apply  the  test  of  execu- 
tion. Henry  James:  Partial  Portraits. 

(i)  Whatever  may  be  the  thing  which  one  wishes  to  say,  there 
is  but  one  word  for  expressing  it ;  only  one  verb  to  animate 
it,  only  one  adjective  to  qualify  it.  It  is  essential  to  search 
for  this  word,  for  this  verb,  for  this  adjective,  until  they 
are  discovered,  and  to  be  satisfied  with  nothing  else. 
Flaubert. 

(J)  If  there  be,  what  I  believe  there  is,  in  every  nation,  a  style 
which  never  becomes  obsolete,  a  certain  mode  of  phrase- 
ology so  consonant  and  congenial  to  the  analogy  and  prin- 
ciples of  its  respective  language  as  to  remain  settled  and 


STYLE  155 

unaltered,  this  style  is  probably  to  be  sought  for  in  the 
common  intercourse  of  life,  among  those  who  speak  only 
to  be  understood,  without  ambition  of  elegance.  The 
polite  are  always  catching  modish  innovations,  and  the 
learned  depart  from  established  forms  of  speech  in  hope 
of  finding  or  making  better ;  those  who  wish  for  distinction 
forsake  the  vulgar  when  the  vulgar  is  right;  but  there  is  a 
conversation  above  grossness  and  below  refinement,  where 
propriety  resides  and  where  this  poet  seems  to  have 
gathered  his  comic  dialogue.  Samuel  Johnson:  Preface 
to  Shakespeare. 
(k)  Whenever  I  read  a  book  or  a  passage  that  particularly 
pleased  me,  in  which  a  thing  was  said  or  an  effect  ren- 
dered with  propriety,  in  which  there  was  either  some  con- 
spicuous force  or  some  happy  distinction  of  style,  I  must 
sit  down  at  once  and  set  myself  to  ape  that  quality.  I  was 
unsuccessful,  and  I  knew  it;  and  tried  again,  and  was 
again  unsuccessful  and  always  unsuccessful;  but  at  least 
in  these  vain  bouts,  I  got  some  practice  in  rhythm,  in 
harmony,  in  construction  and  the  coordination  of  parts. 
I  have  thus  played  the  sedulous  ape  to  Hazlitt,  to  Lamb, 
to  Wordsworth,  to  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  to  Defoe,  to  Haw- 
thorne, to  Montaigne,  to  Baudelaire,  and  to  Obermann. . . . 
But  enough  has  been  said  to  show  by  what  arts  of  imper- 
sonation, and  in  what  purely  ventriloquial  efforts  I  first 
saw  my  words  on  paper.  .  .  .  Before  he  can  tell  what 
cadences  he  truly  prefers,  the  student  should  have  tried 
all  that  are  possible;  before  he  can  choose  and  preserve  a 
fitting  key  of  words,  he  should  long  have  practised  the 
literary  scales ;  and  it  is  only  after  years  of  such  gymnas- 
tic that  he  can  sit  down  at  last,  legions  of  words  swarm- 
ing to  his  call,  dozens  of  turns  of  phrase  simultaneously 
bidding  for  his  choice,  arjd  he  himself  knowing  what  he 
wants  to  do  and  (within  the  narrow  limit  of  a  man's  abil- 
ity) able  to  do  it.  And  it  is  the  great  point  of  these 
imitations  that  there  still  shines  beyond  the  student's 
reach  his  inimitable  model.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson: 
A  College  Magazine. 
7.  Read  Herbert  Spencer's  The  Philosophy  of  Style,  Wordsworth's 
Preface  to  the  second  edition  of  the  Lyrical  Ballads,  and  Mat- 
thew Arnold's  Essay  on  The  Study  of  Poetry,  (a)  Write  out  a 


156  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

list  of  at  least  twenty  practical  suggestions  obtained  from  these 
essays,  (b)  Select  half  a  dozen  statements  with  which  you  do 
not  agree;  give  your  reasons,  (c)  Are  there  any  aspects  of 
style  which  these  writers  have  not  considered? 

REFERENCES 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   College  Manual  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  191-230. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Composition  Oral  and  Written,  pp.  287-317. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Writing  and  Speaking,  pp.  364-93. 

Bates,  Arlo.   Talks  on  Writing  English,  pp.  299-318. 

Bell,  R.  H.    The  Changing  Values  of  English  Speech,  pp.  137-52. 

Bennett,  Arnold.   Literary  Taste:  How  to  Form  It. 

Brewster,  W.  T.   Representative  Essays  on  the  Theory  of  Style. 

Brewster,  W.  T.  English  Composition  and  Stijle,  pp.  175-302. 

Brewster,  W.  T.  Studies  in  Structure  and  Style. 

Brewster,  W.  T.    Writing  English  Prose,  pp.  152-228. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.   Exercises  in  Rhetoric  and  English  Composition, 

pp.  187-216. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.   Model  English  Prose,  pp.  340-70. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.   Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  239-62. 
Clark,  J.  Scott.  A  Practical  Rhetoric,  pp.  47-187. 
Cody,  Sherwin.   The  Art  of  Writing  and  Speaking  the  English  Lan- 
guage: Composition. 
Cook,  Albert  S.   The  Bible  and  English  Prose  Style. 
Cooper,  F.  T.    The  Craftsmanship  of  Writing,  pp.  115-240. 
Cooper,  Lane.   Theories  of  Style. 

Earle,  Samuel  C.    The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Technical  Writing. 
Espenshade,  A.  H.  Essentials  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  37- 

116. 
Gencjng,  J.  F.  Handbook  of  Rhetorical  Analysis:  Studies  in  Style,  pp. 

1-127. 
Gentjng,  J.  F.   The  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  13-84. 
Gentjng,  J.  F.    The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  13-43. 
Greenough,  J.  B.  Words  and  Their  Ways  in  English  Speech,  pp.  110- 

27. 
Hill,  A.  S.  Our  English. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.   Enlarged  Practice-Book  in  English  Composition, 

pp.  230-92. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.   Rhetoric  and  the  Study  of  Literature,  pp.  69  et  seq. 
Lewes,  G.  H.   Principles  of  Success  in  Literature. 
Lewis,  Edwin  H.   Business  English. 
Nichol  and  McCormick.    Questions  and  Exercises  on  English  Com' 

position. 
Phelps  and  Frink.   Rhetoric;  Its  Theory  and  Practice. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  157 

Raleigh,  Walter.  Style. 

Saintsbury,  G.  E.  B.  A  History  of  English  Prose  Rhythm. 

Scott,  F.  N.  Essays  on  Style,  Rhetoric,  and  Language. 

Spencer,  Herbert.   Philosophy  of  Style. 

Strang,  H.  I.  Exercises  in  English,  pp.  94-123. 

Waddt,  Virginia.   Elements  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  132- 

217;  267-96. 
Wendell,  Barrett.   English  Composition. 
Williams,  William.   Composition  and  Rhetoric  by  Practice,  pp.  160- 

205;  234-02. 

13.  FIGURES   OF   SPEECH 

1.  Figurative  language. 

1.  Figures  of  speech  used  formerly  to  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  chief  literary  ornaments.  The  justifica- 
tion of  their  use,  however,  is  far  more  fundamental. 
They  serve  as  a  means  to  attain  the  real  end  of  all 
writing :  to  create  an  idea  in  the  mind  of  a  reader. 
They  help  to  increase  the  following  qualities  of 
good  writing:  — 

(a)  Clearness  and  vividness. 

(6)  Emphasis  and  impressiveness. 

(c)  Interest  and  animation. 

2.  The  appeal  that  is  made  by  figures  of  speech  de- 
pends chiefly  upon  comparison,  and  it  therefore 
implies  a  certain  familiarity  with  the  significant 
characteristics  of  the  things  compared.  Figures  of 
speech  should  make  ideas  clearer  and  not  vaguer. 
They  must  use  ideas  already  existent  in  the  read- 
er's mind,  or  else  the  comparison  fails. 

3.  From  the  point  of  view  of  style,  writing  which  is 
rich  in  figures  of  speech  has  a  certain  picturesque- 
ness  which  distinguishes  it  from  the  literal  and 
commonplace.  The  skillful  and  judicious  use  of 
figures  is  one  of  the  best  indications  of  the  hand  of 
the  master-craftsman. 


158  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

2.  Kinds  of  figures  of  speech. 

1.  Elaborate  lists  of  figures  of  speech  such  as  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  found  in  the  older  rhetorics:  ana- 
coluthon,  antithesis,  antonomasia,  apostrophe, 
asyndeton,  euphemism,  hyperbole,  innuendo, 
irony,  litotes,  metaphor,  metonymy,  onomato- 
poeia, parrhesia,  personification,  sarcasm,  simile, 
oynecdoche. 

2.  The  most  useful  figures  of  speech  are :  — 

(a)  The  metaphor,  which,  by  means  of  the  verb  "to 
be,"  indicates  equality,  resemblance,  or  anal- 
ogy between  two  things  when  that  relation  is 
imaginatively  rather  than  literally  true.  The 
metaphor  is  generally  strong,  vivid,  and  strik- 
ing in  its  effect. 

The  tempers  of  the  young  are  liquid  fires  in  isles  of 
quicksand,  the  precious  metals  not  yet  cooled  in 
solid  earth.  George  Meredith  :  The  Egoist. 

(6)  The  simile,  which,  by  means  of  the  word  "as" 
or  "like,"  expresses  a  comparison  or  likeness 
between  two  things  which  have  some  striking 
point  of  resemblance.  It  is  not  so  strong  as  the 
metaphor,  and  is  to  be  preferred  when  the 
comparison  is  not  so  obvious  and  complete,  or 
where  emphasis  is  not  necessary. 
Life,  like  a  dome  of  many-colored  glass, 
Stains  the  white  radiance  of  eternity. 

Shelley:  Adonais. 

(c)  Figurative  speech  may  be  extended  to  become 
a  literary  method.    When  a  whole  subject 
rather  than  an  idea,  is  treated  figuratively,  the 
following  terms  are  used :  — 
(1)  Allegory. 

When  aspects  or  qualities  of  a  subject  or 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  159 

individual  are  personified  and  made  to  act 
and  react  in  a  continuous  narrative  with 
an  undercurrent  of  moral  or  spiritual 
meaning,  the  name  allegory  is  given  to  this 
form  of  writing. 

The  student  should  familiarize  himself  with 
the  Letter  prefixed  to  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene, 
and  with  some  of  the  following  allegories: 
Everyman;  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress;  Stev- 
enson's Will  of  the  Mill;  Oscar  Wilde's  The 
Young  King,  The  Fisherman  and  his  Soul,  The 
Nightingale  and  the  Rose;  Tennyson's  The 
Vision  of  Sin,  The  Palace  of  Art,  The  Idylls  of 
the  King;  Hawthorne's  The  Prophetic  Pictures, 
The  Great  Carbuncle,  Dr.  Heidegger's  Experi- 
ment. 

(2)  Fable. 

This  use  of  figurative  language  usually  in- 
volves the  telling  of  a  fictitious  narrative, 
often  short  and  homely,  in  such  a  way  as 
to  enforce  the  truth  of  some  practical  or 
homely  precept  or  maxim.  Its  main  pur- 
pose is  ethical,  and  in  this  respect  it  is 
closely  allied  to  the  parable,  which  seeks 
to  find  a  spiritual  significance  in  common 
phases  of  human  life  or  nature. 

Good  examples  of  fables  may  be  found  in  the 
collections  called  iEsop,  Jataka,  Panchatantra, 
Hitopadesa,  and  Bidpai. 

The  New  Testament  offers  excellent  ex- 
amples of  Parables.  See  particularly  John  x, 
1-18;  xv,  1-17;  Matthew  xin,  4-50;  xvm, 
23-35;  xx,  1-16;  xxi,  28-44;  xxn,  1-14;  xxv, 
1-30. 

3.  The  use  of  figurative  language. 

1.  Realize  fully  the  implications  of  the  figure  which 


160  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

you  wish  to  use,  and  see  that  it  is  thoroughly 
appropriate. 

2.  Do  not  use  figures  that  are  likely  to  be  unfamiliar 
to  the  ordinary  reader  or  too  remote  from  average 
human  experience  to  be  readily  intelligible. 

3.  Get  the  habit  of  noting  striking  comparisons  in 
everyday  experience,  and  jot  them  down  in  your 
notebook. 

4.  Remember  that  a  figure  may  not  necessarily  sug- 
gest to  your  reader's  mind  exactly  what  it  does  to 
you.  If  your  figure  is  to  be  effective  it  must  be 
interpreted  as  you  mean. 

5.  Decide  exactly  what  you  wish  your  proposed 
figure  to  suggest.  The  problem  is  twofold:  What 
do  you  wish  to  emphasize  or  make  definite  by  the 
use  of  a  figure?  Which  figure  will  best  accomplish 
this  end? 

6.  Be  sure  that  you  are  basing  your  use  of  a  figure 
upon  a  real,  essential,  or  fundamental  likeness 
between  the  two  things  which  you  are  bringing 
into  relation. 

7.  Do  not  emphasize  accidental,  occasional,  or  insig- 
nificant resemblances  when  you  are  making  a 
comparison. 

8.  Avoid  the  hackneyed,  commonplace,  and  con- 
ventional. 

9.  Let  your  use  of  figures  appear  to  be  easy,  spon- 
taneous, and  not  labored  or  striven  for. 

10.  Never  let  the  figure  dominate  the  sense  or  lead 
you  away  from  the  idea  which  you  are  trying  to 
express. 

11.  Never  use  figures  merely  as  an  artificial  stylistic 
ornament. 

12.  In  using  more  than  one  figure,  be  careful  that  you 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  161 

do  not  involve  or  imply  some  contradiction  or 
incongruity. 
13.  Do  not  multiply  figures  until  they  become  con- 
fusing and  tiresome,  or  a  literary  mannerism. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Note,  in  your  reading,  any  instances  of  good  metaphors  and 
similes  referring  to  (a)  size;  (b)  shape;  (c)  color;  (d)  movement. 

2.  Do  metaphors  or  similes  appear  to  be  more  frequently  used? 
Can  you  suggest  a  reason? 

3.  Find  examples  of  figures  of  speech  whose  object  is  to  suggest  (a) 
definiteness ;  (6)  vagueness;  (c)  impressiveness;  (d)  human 
emotions. 

4.  Which  of  the  following  figures  do  you  consider  good  and  which 
bad?  Give  your  reason  in  each  case. 

(a)  The  white  face  of  the  British  soldier  is  the  backbone  of  the 
Indian  army. 

(b)  The  poem  stirred  his  heart  like  the  sound  of  a  trumpet. 

(c)  He  received  his  name  because  he  was  a  lion  in  battle. 

(d)  The  news  is  rushed  into  the  melting  pot  to  be  selected 
from  and  made  into  stories. 

(e)  He  was  the  glass  of  fashion  and  the  mould  of  form. 
(/)    His  words  fell  soft,  like  snow  upon  the  ground. 

(g)   The  wish  is  father  to  the  deed. 

(h)   Every  newspaper  is  partisan;  the  very  foundations  on 

which  it  is  conducted  make  it  so. 
(i)    As  coals  are  to  hot  embers,  and  wood  to  fire,  so  is  a  conten- 
tious man  to  inflame  strife. 
(j)    I  will  now  embark  upon  the  feature  on  which  this  question 

mainly  hinges. 
(k)   Every  office  represents  some  new  vein  of  human  interest, 

and  they  all  congregate  outside  in  the  big  open  floor  space. 
(I)    With  her  gauzy  wings  amid  the  multicolored  lights,  the 

dancer  was  a  wondrous  butterfly  in  some  strange  garden, 
(m)  A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples  of  gold  in  baskets  of 

silver, 
(n)  As  in  water  face  answereth  to  face,  so  is  the  heart  of  man 

to  man. 
(o)   His  face  was  as  red  as  a  beet. 


162  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

(p)  The  words  that  he  spoke  were  the  bread  of  life  to  my  spirit. 

(g)   The  moonlight  was  a  silver  path  across  the  waves. 

(r)    I  am  the  true  vine,  and  my  Father  is  the  husbandman. 

(s)  His  temper  is  a  stumbling-block  in  the  path  of  his  ad- 
vancement. 

(0    Her  countenance  was  clear  as  the  moon  and  as  cold. 

(w)  Her  teeth  were  two  rows  of  pearls. 

(v)  So  have  I  seen  a  rose  newly  springing  from  the  clefts  of  its 
hood,  and  at  first  it  was  fair  as  the  morning  and  filled  with 
the  dew  of  heaven  like  a  lamb's  fleece;  but  when  a  ruder 
breath  had  forced  open  its  virgin  modesty,  and  dismantled 
its  too  youthful  and  unripe  retirements,  it  began  to  put  on 
darkness  and  to  decline  to  softness  and  the  symptoms  of  a 
sickly  age;  it  bowed  the  head  and  broke  its  stalk,  and  at 
night,  having  lost  some  of  its  leaves  and  all  its  beauty,  it 
sank  into  the  portion  of  weeds  and  outworn  faces.  The 
same  is  the  portion  of  every  man  and  every  woman. 

(w)  The  poisoned  needle  of  the  reactionary  must  be  nipped  in 
the  bud  lest  the  wheels  of  progress  be  snuffed  out  in  the 
very  dawning  of  the  glorious  tide  of  infant  emancipation. 

(x)  He  lifts  the  story  out  of  the  common  rut  of  sociological 
novels  by  the  realistic  vein  that  pervades  the  book. 

(y)  The  shadow  of  enormous  debts  that  hung  over  Abbots- 
ford  spurred  him  on. 

(2)   Whereas  Charlotte  Bronte's  femininity  sprang  into  pulse- 
beats  that  often  arrived  at  sentimentality,  George  Eliot's 
hides  behind  a  cultivated  self-control. 
5.  Find  suitable  figures  to  describe  the  following :  — 

(a)  A  crowd  around  an  ambulance  at  the  street  corner. 

(6)   A  field  of  poppies. 

(c)  A  heavy  snowstorm. 

(d)  A  very  strong,  muscular  man. 

(e)  A  city  street  on  a  rainy  night. 
(/)    The  wind  among  pine  trees. 

(g)  The  sound  of  a  cricket  at  night. 

(h)  A  waterfall. 

(i)  A  child  lost  in  the  city. 

(j)  A  traffic  policeman. 

{k)  Moonlight  on  calm  water. 

(I)  Moonlight  on  waves. 

(m)  The  gallery  of  a  theater. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  163 

(n)  Spring  foliage. 

(o)   A  fat  boy. 

(p)  Street  in  fog. 

(q)   A  crowd  of  strikers. 

(r)    A  thunder  cloud. 

(s)   An  old  cab  horse. 

(t)    An  express  train. 

(u)  Yachts  racing. 

(t>)    A  bargain  counter. 

(w)  A  desert. 

(x)  A  ruined  cabin  or  cottage. 

(y)  A  field  of  oats. 

(z)   A  long,  straight  road. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  hackneyed,  trite,  or  commonplace  figures  which 
you  consider  it  well  to  avoid. 

7.  Notice  the  figures  of  speech  in  the  New  Testament  and  in 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost.  What  would  be  the  effect  of  omitting 
these  figures  or  of  altering  them? 

8.  Why  are  figures  of  speech  more  numerous  in  poetry  than  in  the 
newspaper? 

9.  Justify  the  following  figures  of  speech :  — 

(a)  It  was  on  the  full  river  of  love  that  Sir  Willoughby  sup- 
posed the  whole  floating  bulk  of  his  personality  to  be  sus- 
tained. Meredith  :  The  Egoist. 

(6)  He  had  no  fear  of  that  fiery  dragon  of  scorching  breath  — 
the  newspaper  Press  —  while  Vernon  was  his  right-hand 
man.  Meredith:  The  Egoist. 

(c)  Wait  yet  a  little  longer,  and  you  shall  see  those  mists 
gather  themselves  into  white  towers  and  stand  like  fort- 
resses along  the  promontories,  massy  and  motionless. 
Ruskin:  Modern  Painters. 

(d)  The  smouldering  sun,  seeming  not  far  away,  but  burning 
like  a  red-hot  ball  beside  you,  and  as  if  you  could  reach  it, 
plunges  through  the  rushing  wind  and  rolling  cloud  witn 
headlong  fall,  as  if  it  meant  to  rise  no  more,  dyeing  all  the 
air  about  it  with  blood.  Ruskin:  Modern  Painters. 

(e)  Day! 

Faster  and  more  fast, 
O'er  night's  brim,  day  boils  at  last: 
Boils,  pure  gold,  o'er  the  cloud-cup's  brim 
Where  spurting  and  suppressed  it  lay, 


164  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

For  not  a  froth-flake  touched  the  rim 
Of  yonder  gap  in  the  solid  gray 
Of  the  eastern' cloud,  an  hour  away; 
But  forth  one  wavelet,  then  another,  curled, 
Till  the  whole  sunrise,  not  to  be  suppressed, 
Rose,  reddened,  and  its  seething  breast 
Flickered  in  bounds,  grew  gold,  then  overflowed  the  world. 

Browning:  Pippa  Passes. 

REFERENCES 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Composition  Oral  and  Written,  pp.  158-60. 

Bates,  Arlo.    Talks  on  Writing  English,  vol.  2,  pp.  146-66. 

Butler,  G.  P.  School  English,  pp.  119-62. 

Clark,  J.  Scott.  A  Practical  Rhetoric,  pp.  187-240. 

Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold.  Essentials  of  Composition  and 

Rhetoric,  pp.  370-91. 
Genung,  J.  F.   Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  85-107. 
Greenough,  J.  B.    Words  and  Their  Ways  in  English  Speech,  pp. 

309-29. 
Herrick  and  Damon.   New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools,  p. 

493. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.    Enlarged  Practice-Book  in  English  Composition, 

pp.  305-25. 
Lockwood,  S.  E.  H.   Lessons  in  English,  pp.  66-117. 
Nesfield,  J.  C.    Manual  of  English  Grammar  and  Composition,  pp. 

210-52. 
Nesfield,  J.  C.  Senior  Course  of  English  Composition,  pp.  3-19. 
Newcomer  and  Seward.   Rhetoric  in  Practice,  pp.  201-16. 
Nichol,  John.   English  Composition,  pp.  76-93. 
Shaw,  E.  R.  English  Composition  by  Practice,  pp.  82-109. 
Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  505-12. 
Thorndike,  A.  H.  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  pp.  264-77. 
Waddy.  Virginia.    Elements  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  218-55. 
Williams,  William.   Composition  and  Rhetoric  by  Practice,  pp.  206- 

33. 

14.  DIACRITICAL  MARKS 


a  as  in  ale,  labor 

a  as  in  am,  fat 

a  as  in  far,  arm 

a  as  in  ask,  dance 

a  as  in  care,  air 

a  as  in  preface,  senate 


a  as  in  infant,  final 
a  as  in  hall,  call 
a  as  in  what,  was 

e  as  in  eve,  serene 
6  as  in  met,  let 


WORDS  COMMONLY  MISPRONOUNCED        165 


e  as  in  depend,  society 

e  as  in  pervert,  inference 

e  as  in  prudence,  novel 

e  as  in  they 

e  as  in  thSre,  heir 

ee  as  in  eel,  peel 

I  as  in  Ice,  bite 

I  as  in  111,  It 

I  as  in  bird,  irksome 

i"  as  iu  police,  machine 

o  as  in  old,  bold 
6  as  in  6dd,  not 
6  as  in  orb,  lord 
q  as  in  do.  who 
o  as  in  wolf,  bosom 
6  as  in  son,  other 
6  as  in  obey,  tobacco 
oo  as  in  fool,  moon 
<56  as  in  fdtit,  wd"t>l 
o  as  in  s5ft,  d5g 


u  as  in  use,  mute 
u  as  in  Qp,  tub 
u  as  in  urn,  furl 
u  as  in  rude,  intrude 
u  aa  in  full,  put 

y  as  in  fly,  sky 

y  as  in  hymn,  myth 

y  as  in  myrrh,  myrtle 

eh  (k)  as  in  ehorus,  eeho 

ch  (sh)  as  in  chaise,  chandelier 

g  (hard)  as  in  get,  anger 

g  (soft)  as  in  gem,  gin 

dg  (j)  as  in  edge,  bridge 

e  (k)  as  in  eat,  concern 

c  (s)  as  in  vice,  facade 

§  (z)  as  in  i§,  hi§ 

5  (gz)  as  in  e^ist 

th  (voiceless)  as  in  thin,  thought 

fcfe  (voiced)  as  in  then,  tfeis 


IS.  WORDS   COMMONLY  MISPRONOUNCED1 


abject  (Sb'jekt) 
accept  (Sk-sepf) 
acclimate  (a-kll'mat) 
address  (a-dres') 
adept  (d-dept') 
adobe  (d-do'b6) 
aerate  (a'er-at) 
aeronaut  (a'er-o-not) 
aeroplane  (a.'er-6-plan') 
aggrandize  (Sg'r«n-diz) 
alias  (a'll-as) 
aliment  (aTl-m<?nt) 
allopathy  («-16p'd-thI) 
allopathic  (al'6  p&th'Tk) 
almond  (&'mund  or  al'rnwnd) 
alpaca  (3,1-pSk'd) 
amenable  (d-me'nd-b'l) 
anchovy  (sln-chO'vl) 
anemone  (d-nem'5-ne) 
animalcule  (an'I-maTkul) 
apotheoses   (slp'6  the'o-sls  or 

dp5th'e-5'sls) 
apparatus  (ilp'd-ra'tws) 
apricot  (a'prl-kot  or  ap'rl-kot) 

1  In  this  list  the  Webster's  New  International  Dictionary  has  been 
used  as  authority 


arbiter  (aVbl-ter) 

arbutus  (iir'bu-tws  or  ar-bu'tws) 

archangel  (ark'an'jel) 

architrave  (ar'kl-trav) 

arctic  (ark'rlk) 

arraign  (a-ran') 

aspirant  (Ss-plr'ant) 

aspirate  (Ss'pl-rat) 

athletic  (ath-let'Ik) 

aunt  (ant) 

automobile  (o'to-mCbll   or   o'tft- 

mfi-bel') 
avenue  (av'e-nu,  not  noo) 

Babel  (ba'bel) 

baptist  (bap'tlst) 

barbarous  (bar'bd-rws) 

barrel  (bSr'^l) 

bas-relief  (ba're-lef  or  bas're-lef) 

bestial  (bes'chal) 

biography  (bl-og'rd-fl) 

blackguard  (bl&g'&rd) 

blatant  (bla'tdnt) 

bouquet  (boo-ka') 


166 


THE   USE  OF  LANGUAGE 


breadth  (br6dth)_ 

brougham   (broo'um,    broom,  or 

brO'wm) 
burglar  (bUr'gler) 

calliope  (ka-ll'3-pe) 

cantaloupe  (kan'td-loop  or  kSn'- 

td-lOp) 
carbine  (k&r'bln) 
casualty  (kfizh'fl-dl-tl) 
Catholicism  (kd-thSl'I-sIz'm) 
cavalry  (kaVa!-rI) 
cerebral  (s6r'e-bral) 
cerement  (ser'ment) 
chameleon  (kd-me'l£-ttn) 
chivalrous  (shlv'dl-rws) 
clandestine  (klan-d6s'tln) 
clematis  (klem'd-tls) 
clique  (klek) 
coadjutor  (ko'«-joo'ter) 
cognomen  (kSg-nO'm&D) 
column  (kbl'uxn) 
condolence  (k<5n-d<5'l<?ns) 
conduit   (kOn'dlt ;   formerly,  and 

still  by  some,  ktln'dlt) 
conjugal  (kSn'joo-gcfl) 
constable  (kun'std-b'l) 
contumely  (k5n'tu-medi) 
coupon  (koo'pSn) 
creek  (krek) 

crematory  (krem'd-t<5-rl) 
culinary  (ku'll-na-rl) 
cupola  (kQ'po-ld) 

daguerreotype  (dd-ger'<5-tlp) 

decease  (de-ses') 

decorum  (de-k5'ram) 

defalcate  (de-fal'kat) 

deficit  (def'l-slt) 

derelict  (der'e-llkt) 

despicable  (d6s'pl-kd-b'l) 

dessert  (d6-zurf) 

desultory  (dgs'iil-tS-rl) 

detonate  (det'5-nat) 

diamond  (dl'd-mttnd) 

diocesan     (di-os'§-san ;     dl'o-se - 

sdn) 
dislocate  (dls'15-kat) 
dissoluble  (dls'5-lti-b'l) 
domicile  (dOm'I-sIl) 
doughty  (dou'tl) 


eczema  (ek'ze"-md) 
entree  (aN'tra') 
ephemeral  (e-fBm'er-^1) 
epizobtic  (ep'I-zS-St'Ik) 
equinox  (e'kwl-n6ks) 
every  (6v'er-I ;  gv'rl) 
exponent  (eks-po'n<?nt) 
exquisite  (Sks'kwl-zlt) 
extol  (6ks-t61';  -toT) 
extra  (eks'trd) 

February  (f6b'roo-S-rl) 
flaccid  (fl&k'sld) 
fulsome  (ftil'sttm) 
fungi  (fun'jl) 

gaol  (jal) 
gape  (gap;  gap) 
genealogy  (jeVS-al'S-jI) 
genuine  (j8u'u-In) 
gherkin  (gur'kln) 
ghoul  (gool) 
gibbet  (jlb'et ;  jlb'It) 
gladiolus  (gld-dl'5-lwa) 
gondola  (g6n'd6-ld) 
granary  (gran'd-ri) 
gratis  (gra'tls) 
grimace  (grl-mas') 
gyve  (jlv) 

harass  (haVas) 
harbinger  (har'bln-jer) 
height  (hit) 
heinous  (ha'nws) 
herculean  (her-ku'le-an) 
hermetically  (her-m8t'I-kdl-I) 
history  (hls'torl) 
holocaust  (hSl'o-kost) 
homeopathic  (h5'meo-pSth1k) 
homeopathy  (h0'me-6p'd-thi) 
homicide  (hOm'I-sld) 
hospitable  (h5s'pl-td-b'l) 
hostage  (hSs'taj) 
hundred  (htln'dred) 

idea  (I-de'd) 
impious  (Im'pl-Ms) 
impotent  (im'po"-t<?nt) 
inchoate  (In'ko-at) 
inclement  (ln-klem'ent) 
incomparable  (In-k5m'pd-rd-b'l) 


COMMON   ERRORS  IN  SPEECH  AND  WRITING     167 


indissoluble  (ln-dls'o-lH-b'l) 
inquiry  (In-kwIr'I) 
inveigle  (In-ve'g'l) 
irrelevant  (I-rel'e-vdnt) 
irremediable  (Ir'e-me'dl-d-b'l) 
irreparable  (I-rep'd-rd-b'l) 
irrevocable  (I-rev'5-kd-b'l) 
Italian  (I-taTydn) 

jugular  (joo'g(l-ldr) 

laboratory  (lab'S-rd-tS-rl) 
larynx  (lar'Inks) 
library  (ll'bra-rl) 
lineament  (lln'e-d-ment) 
literature  (Ht'er -d-tjjr) 

Madeira  (md-dg'rd) 

massacre  (mas'd-ker) 

matutinal  (md-tu'tl-udl) 

mauve  (mOv) 

mineralogy  (mln'er-al-o'-jl) 

mischievous  (nils'chl-vws) 

museum  (mfl-ze'iini)^ 

mushroom  (mush'rooru) 

muskrat  (musk'rSt') 

mustache  (nms-tash';  mdos-tash') 

nape (nap) 

New  Orleans  (nil  or'le-dnz) 

Niagara  (nl-Sg'd-rd) 

often  (of"n) 

oleomargarine  (C'le-o'-mar'gd-ren) 

participle  (paVtl-sI-p'l) 
peony  (pg'6-nl) 
percolator  (pfir'ko-la'ter) 
peremptory  (per'&mp-tS-rt) 
perspiration  (puVspl-ra'shwn) 
plagiarism  (pla'jl-d-rlz'm) 


poem  (pC'em) 
precedence  (pre-sgd'ens) 
pumpkin  (pump'kln) 

quay  (kg) 

raspberry  (r2z'b6r-I) 
recognize  (rSk'<5g-nIz) 
regular  (rgg'u-ldr) 
rinse  (rlns) 
robust  (ro-busf) 
romance  (r<5-mans') 
roof  (roof) 

sacrifice  (s&k'rl-flz,  or  -fls) 
sacrilegious  (s&k'rl-le'jws) 
salmon  (sam'wn) 
salve  (sav) 

sarsaparilla  (sar'sd-pd-rll'd) 
satiety  (6d-tl'e-tl) 
sinecure  (sl'ne-kur) 
sophomore  (s6f'6-mor) 
stature  (stilt/yr) 
status  (sta'tws) 
surprise  (swr-prlz') 
sword  (sord) 

taxidermist  (t&k'sl-dilr'mlst) 
temperament  (t6m'per-d  ment) 
temperature  (tSm'per-d-tyr) 
tremendous  (tre-m6n'dws) 
turquoise  (ttir-koiz';  tuVkwoiz) 

vagary  (vd-ga'rl) 
valuable  (vaTu-d-b'l) 
variegate  (va'rl-g-gat) 
vaudeville  (vOd'vIl) 

xylophone  (zI'16-fSn) 

zo5logy  (z6-5l'o"-jI) 


16.  COMMON  ERRORS   IN   SPEECH  AND   WRITING 

Affect,  a  verb;  should  not  be  confused  with  the  noun  effect. 

Correct:  What  was  the  effect  of  the  news? 
How  did  the  news  affect  her? 

Aggravate,  meaning  to  increase  a  condition  already  exist- 


168  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

ing;  is  sometimes  carelessly  confused  with  irritate  or 
annoy. 

Incorrect:  The  small  boy  aggravated  his  sister. 

Correct:  The  small  boy  irritated  his  sister. 

Correct:  His  illness  was  aggravated  by  his  mental  distress. 

All  the  farther  is  an  illiterate  expression. 

Incorrect:  That  was  all  the  farther  I  could  go. 
Correct:  That  was  as  far  as  I  could  go. 

And  should  not  be  used  for  to,  as  in  "Try  and  be  good." 
Correct:  Try  to  be  good. 

And  which  should  be  used  only  in  parallelism  with  another 

which  clause. 

Incorrect:  On  the  way  home  I  had  caught  a  butterfly  pe- 
culiarly marked,  and  which  I  was  desirous  of  showing  to 
the  Professor  of  Zoology. 

Correct:  On  the  way  home  I  had  caught  a  butterfly  which 
was  peculiarly  marked,  and  which  I  was  desirous  of 
showing  to  the  Professor  of  Zoology.  [Or]  On  the  way 
home  I  had  caught  a  peculiarly  marked  butterfly  which 
[or  that]  I  was  desirous  of  showing,  etc. 

As  cannot  be  used  instead  of  that. 
Incorrect:  Not  as  I  know  of. 
Correct:  Not  that  I  know. 

As  good  as  or  better  than  is  a  combination  of  words  from 
which  the  second  as  is  sometimes  carelessly  omitted. 
Incorrect:  This  is  as  good  or  better  than  that. 
Correct:  This  is  as  good  as  or  better  than  that. 

Aught,  meaning  anything,  should  not  be  confused  with 
naught,  meaning  nothing.  The  number  106  may  be  ren- 
dered one-naught-six,  not  one-aught-six. 

Balance  should  not  be  used  instead  of  remainder. 

Correct:  He  used  some  of  the  money  and  gave  the  remainder 
[not  the  balance]  to  his  brother. 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  SPEECH  AND  WRITING     169 

Beg,  when  a  question  of  permission  is  involved,  should  be 
combined  with  a  noun  and  not  with  an  infinitive. 
Incorrect:  I  beg  to  differ  with  you. 
Correct:  I  beg  leave  to  differ  with  you. 

Between  should  not  be  confused  with  among.  Between  is 
used  of  two  persons  or  things;  among  is  used  of  more 
than  two. 

Correct: 

(a)  They  divided  the  money  between  the  two  brothers. 
(6)  The  land  is  to  be  divided  among  five  heirs. 

Blame  on  is  a  crude  expression,  as  in  "  He  blamed  it  on  me." 

Correct:  He  put  the  blame  on  me.    [Or]  He  attached  the 
blame  to  me. 

Boughten  is  not  a  good  English  word.  Bought  should  be 
used  instead. 

But  as  a  preposition  takes  the  objective  pronoun  as  a  com- 
plement. Some  good  writers  have  used  the  nominative, 
but  the  best  usage  favors  the  objective. 

Correct:  No  one  does  this  but  me.    [Or]  No  one  but  me  does 
this. 

Can  and  may  should  not  be  used  interchangeably.  Can 
means  to  be  able ;  may  means  to  be  allowed. 

"Can  I  open  the  window?"  is  equivalent  to  "Is  it  possible 
for  me  to  open  the  window?"  "May  I  open  the  window?"  is 
equivalent  to  "Am  I  permitted  to  open  the  window?" 

Can't  seem  is  an  undesirable  expression.  Do  [or  does]  not 
s^em  to  be  able  is  better. 

Incorrect:  I  can't  seem  to  write  it  correctly.  ■ 
Correct:  I  don't  seem  to  be  able  to  write  it  correctly. 

Caused  by  should  be  used  in  connection  with  a  noun,  which 
it  may  properly  modify  or  refer  to. 


170  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

Incorrect:  He  did  not  return,  caused  by  an  accident  to  one  of 

the  horses. 
Correct:  His  failure  to  return  was  caused  by  an  accident  to 

one  of  the  horses.  [Or]  Because  of  an  accident  to  one  of 

the  horses,  he  did  not  return. 

Claim  should  not  be  used  for  assert.  Claim  means  to  demand 
something  to  which  one  has  a  right. 

Incorrect:  He  claims  that  he  did  the  work. 
Correct: 

(a)  He  asserts  [or  maintains]  that  he  did  the  work. 

(6)  The  boy  claimed  his  book. 

Clerk  is  not  properly  used  as  a  verb. 

Incorrect:  He  is  clerking  in  a  drug  store. 

Correct:  He  is  employed  as  a  clerk  in  a  drug  store. 

Complected  is  not  a  good  English  word.  Complexioned  may 
be  used  instead. 

Could  of  is  an  illiterate  phrase  for  could  have. 

Cunning  means  crafty  or  sly;  it  should  not  be  used  for 
attractive  or  piquant.  A  cunning  child  would  be  a  dis- 
agreeable creature. 

Dangerous  should  not  be  used  for  dangerously  ill. 

Decimate  means  to  destroy  or  kill  a  tenth  of  a  given  number  of 
objects  or  persons.  It  should  not  be  used  loosely  to  signify 
wholesale  devastation  or  slaughter. 

Demean  means  merely  to  behave,  in  any  manner  whatever; 
it  does  not  refer  to  the  lowering  of  one's  standards  of 
behavior.  It  must  always  be  used  with  an  adverbial 
expression  telling  how. 

Incorrect:  He  demeaned  himself  by  speaking  to  them. 
Correct:  He  lowered  himself  by  speaking  to  them. 
He  demeaned  himself  creditably. 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  SPEECH  AND  WRITING     171 

Depot  in  the  sense  of  railroad  station  is  undesirable.  A 
depot  is  a  place  of  deposit,  where  commodities  are  stored. 

Die  with  in  the  sense  of  die  of  is  crude. 
Incorrect:  He  died  with  pneumonia. 
Correct:  He  died  of  pneumonia. 

He  died  from  the  effect  of  the  wound. 

Differ  ivith  means  disagree  with  in  an  intellectual  sense.  It 

should  not  be  confused  with  differ  from,  which  denotes  an 

opposition  of  qualities. 

Correct:  He  differed  with  his  brother  on  the  subject  of  the 
revision  of  the  tariff. 

That  boat  differs  from  this  in  several  particulars. 

Different  should  never  be  used  with  than. 

Incorrect:  It  proved  to  be  quite  different  than  I  expected. 
Correct:  It  proved  to  be  quite  different  from  what  I  ex- 
pected. 

Don't  should  not  be  used  with  nouns  or  pronouns  in  the 
third  person  singular.  Does  n't,  a  contraction  of  does  not, 
is  the  appropriate  form. 

Incorrect:  He  don't;  she  don't;  Mrs.  Jones  don't;  it  don't. 
Correct:  He  does  n't;  she  does  n't;  it  does  n't;  I  don't;  they 
don't. 

Due  to  should  be  used  in  connection  with  a  noun  or  its 
equivalent.  See  Caused  by. 

Incorrect:  Due  to  a  mistake,  he  did  not  arrive  in  time. 
Correct:  His  failure  to  arrive  in  time  was  due  to  a  mistake. 

Each  other  ought,  in  strict  usage,  to  be  distinguished  from 
one  another. 

Each  other  applies  to  two  only;  one  another  to  more  than  two. 

Effect.  See  Affect. 

Either  and  neither  should  be  used  with  the  singular  form  of 
the  verb. 


172  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

Incorrect:  Neither  of  the  men  were  at  home. 
Correct:  Neither  of  the  men  was  at  home. 

Enthuse  is  not  good  English. 

Incorrect:  They  enthused  over  the  plan  that  I  proposed. 

Correct:  They  were  enthusiastic  over  the  plan  that  I  pro- 
posed. 

Expect  means  to  await,  anticipate,  or  look  forward  to;  it 
should  not  be  used  for  suppose. 

Incorrect:  I  expect  that  you  enjoyed  the  play. 
Correct:  I  suppose  that  you  enjoyed  the  play. 

Factor  is  sometimes  carelessly  used  for  reason,  or  part. 

Incorrect:  An  interesting  factor  of  my  experience  was  my 
interview  with  the  Prime  Minister. 

Correct:  An  interesting  part  of  my  experience  was  my  inter- 
view with  the  Prime  Minister. 

Farther.  See  All  the  farther. 

Fetch  means  go  and  bring;  it  should  not  be  used  as  if  it 
meant  merely  to  bring. 

Incorrect:  Go  and  fetch  me  the  hammer. 
Correct:  Fetch  me  the  hammer. 

Fewer.  See  Less. 

Firstly  is  not  a  good  English  word.    First,  or  in  the  first 
place,  should  be  used  instead. 

Fix,  in  its  best  sense,  means  to  establish  or  make  firm. 
Incorrect:  I  will  fix  up  the  room  for  you. 
Correct:  I  will  prepare  the  room  for  you. 

They  fixed  the  flagstaff  in  the  ground. 

Folks  is  a  colloquialism. 

Undesirable:  I  must  consult  my  folks. 

Better:  I  must  consult  my  people  [or  my  family]. 

Funny  means  amusing,  but  not  odd. 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  SPEECH  AND  WRITING     173 

Incorrect:  It  is  funny  that  they  should  have  so  much 

trouble. 
Correct: 

(a)  It  is  odd  [or  strange]  that  they  should  have  so  much 
trouble. 

(6)  He  told  a  very  funny  story. 

For  to  should  not  be  used  instead  of  to. 

Incorrect:  I  want  for  you  to  do  that  piece  of  work. 
Correct:  I  want  [or  wish]  you  to  do  that  piece  of  work. 

Gesture  should  be  used  only  as  a  noun. 
Incorrect:  He  gestured  as  he  spoke. 

Correct:  He  made  gestures  as  he  spoke.  [Or]  He  gesticulated 
as  he  spoke. 

Got,  used  with  some  form  of  have,  to  indicate  possession,  is 
redundant. 

Incorrect:  I  have  got  two  brothers  at  home. 
Correct:  I  have  two  brothers  at  home. 

Gotten  is  passing  out  of  use;  got  may  be  used  instead,  or 
secured,  or  obtained. 

Undesirable:  He  has  gotten  what  he  went  for. 
Better:  He  has  got  [or  obtained]  what  he  went  for. 

Guess  is  frequently  misused  in  America;  it  means,  in  its 
strict  sense,  to  estimate  or  reckon,  or  to  judge  hastily.  In 
written  discourse  it  should  be  used  with  care. 

Hardly  and  scarcely  should  never  be  used  with  negatives. 
Incorrect:  He  could  n't  hardly  do  it. 
Correct:  He  could  hardly  [or  scarcely]  do  it. 

Healthy  and  healthful  should  be  distinguished.     Healthy 
means  possessing  health;  healthful  means  causing  health. 
Incorrect:  Whole-wheat  bread  is  very  healthy. 
Correct:  Whole-wheat  bread  is  very  healthful. 


174  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

Help  but,  used  with  the  simple  infinitive  of  another  verb  is 
not  desirable,  though  it  is  not  incorrect. 
Awkward:  They  could  not  help  but  like  him. 
Smoother:  They  could  not  help  liking  him. 

Hang  and  hung  should  not  be  used  interchangeably.  Hung 
signifies  the  suspending  of  something,  usually  inanimate, 
without  reference  to  killing.  Hanged  refers  to  the  taking 
of  life  through  the  process  of  suspension  by  the  neck. 

Ill  is  in  better  taste  than  sick,  for  ordinary  use.  There  is  a 
tendency  in  America  to  follow  the  English  usage,  in 
which  sick  refers  to  nausea. 

Illy  is  not  an  acknowledged  English  word.  Ill  should  be 
used  in  combination  with  participial  forms. 

Correct:  Ill-prepared;  ill-adjusted;  ill-informed;  ill-dressed. 

In  and  into  should  be  discriminated.  Into  suggests  motion 
from  without  certain  limits  to  within  them;  in  suggests  a 
state  or  action  existing  or  taking  place  within  the  limits 
in  question. 

Inaccurate:  He  jumped  in  the  river. 

Accurate:  He  jumped  into  the  river. 

In  back  of  should  not  be  used  for  behind. 

Inside  of  is  a  circumlocution  for  inside. 
Bad:  I  put  it  inside  of  the  box. 
Better:  I  put  it  inside  [or  into]  the  box. 

If  should  not  be  used  for  whether. 

Undesirable:  I  do  not  know  if  I  can  come. 
Better:  I  do  not  know  whether  I  can  come. 

Invite  must  never  be  used  as  a  noun. 

Crude:  Did  you  have  an  invite  to  the  reception? 
Correct:  Did  you  have  an  invitation  to  the  reception? 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  SPEECH  AND  WRITING     175 

Kind  of  should  not  be  followed  by  a  or  an. 

Undesirable:  I  did  not  think  that  he  was  that  kind  of  a  man. 
Better:  I  did  not  think  he  was  that  kind  of  man. 
The  same  rule  applies  to  sort  of. 

Kind  of,  used  in  the  sense  of  rather  or  somewhat,  is  objec- 
tionable. 

Bad:  I  was  kind  of  disappointed  when  I  heard  the  news. 
Better:  I  was  somewhat  disappointed  when  I  heard  the  news. 

Kindly  should  be  used  with  care  in  the  expression  of 

requests. 

Crude:  We  kindly  request  that  you  will  be  present  at  the 
meeting. 

Correct:  We  request  that  you  [will]  kindly  be  present  at  the 
meeting. 

Latter  should  be  used  of  only  two  persons  or  things,  — 
never  of  more  than  two. 

Lay.  See  Lie. 

Leave  and  let  should  not  be  used  interchangeably.     Leave 
means  to  abandon  and  let  means  to  allow. 
Illiterate:  Please  leave  me  do  it. 
Correct:  Please  let  me  do  it. 
Crude:  I  am  going  to  let  that  word  out. 
Correct:  I  am  going  to  leave  that  word  out. 

Less  and  fewer  should  be  carefully  distinguished.    Less 
refers  to  quantity  and  fewer  to  number. 
Correct: 

(a)  He  brought  less  sugar  than  I  ordered. 

(b)  There  were  fewer  people  at  the  meeting  to-night  than 

there  were  last  night. 

Liable  is  often  confused  with  likely.  Liable  conveys  an  idea 
of  the  possibility  of  disaster;  it  sometimes  suggests 
responsibility  as  well. 


176  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

Lie  and  lay  are  often  confused.  Lie  is  an  intransitive  verb 
meaning  to  rest,  and  lay  is  a  transitive  verb  meaning  to 
put.  The  principal  parts  of  lie  are  lie,  lay,  lain;  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  lay  are  lay,  laid,  laid. 

Incorrect:  You  ought  to  lay  down  for  a  while. 

Correct:  You  ought  to  lie  down  for  a  while. 

Incorrect:  The  watch  had  been  laying  there  for  an  hour. 

Correct:  The  watch  had  been  lying  there  for  an  hour. 

Incorrect:  He  had  gone  out  on  the  lawn  and  laid  down  in  the 

grass. 
Correct:  He  had  gone  out  on  the  lawn  and  lain  down  in  the 

grass. 

Like,  as  an  expression  of  comparison,  should  not  be  used 
when  a  verb  form  is  to  follow.  Where  the  verb  is  ex- 
pressed, as  should  be  used;  where  the  verb  is  not  ex- 
pressed, like  should  be  used. 

Incorrect:  You  must  hold  the  club  like  he  does. 
Correct: 

(a)  You  must  hold  the  club  as  he  does. 

(6)  He  speaks  like  a  foreigner. 

(c)  She  looks  like  you. 

Like  should  not  be  used  for  as  if. 
Incorrect:  I  felt  like  I  should  die. 
Correct:  I  felt  as  if  I  should  die. 

Likely  merely  predicts. 

Incorrect:  I  am  liable  to  come  home  early. 
Correct: 

(a)  I  am  likely  to  come  home  early. 

(b)  He  is  liable  to  be  hurt. 

(c)  He  is  liable  to  prosecution  for  receiving  stolen  goods. 

Locate  is  sometimes  vulgarly  used  for  settle  or  establish 
one's  self. 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  SPEECH  AND  WRITING     177 

Incorrect:  Where  are  you  going  to  locate? 

Correct:  Where  are  you  going  to  settle  [or  establish  your- 
self}? 

May.  See  Can. 

Mean  is  a  synonym  for  low,  small,  despicable ;  it  should  not 
be  used  for  unkind  or  inconsiderate. 
Colloquial:  He  was  mean  to  me. 
Correct:  He  was  unkind  to  me. 

Mind  should  not  be  used  for  obey. 

Incorrect:  Children  should  be  taught  to  mind. 
Correct:  Children  should  be  taught  to  obey. 

Most  must  not  be  used  for  almost. 

Incorrect:  Most  all  my  friends  were  there. 
Correct:  Almost  all  my  friends  were  there. 
Most  may  be  used  when  it  is  followed  by  the  preposition  of, 
as  in  the  sentence  "Most  of  my  friends  were  there." 

Mutual  means  reciprocal,  that  is,  given  and  received,  inter- 
changed, as  in  the  expressions  mutual  consent,  mutual 
compliments.  It  is  not  correctly  used  in  "a  mutual 
friend,"  when  that  expression  is  intended  to  designate  a 
person  who  is  a  friend  to  two  persons;  "a  common 
friend"  is  a  better  phrase. 

Near-by  ought  not  to  be  used  as  an  adjective,  as  in  the 
phrase  "a  near-by  house";  it  may  be  used  as  an  adverb, 
as  in  "a  house  near  by"  (i.e.,  which  stood  near  by). 
Neighboring,  adjoining,  or  adjacent  may  sometimes  be 
made  to  serve  instead  of  the  adjectival  near-by. 

Neither  must  be  combined  with  nor. 

Incorrect:  He  would  neither  speak  to  me  or  look  at  me. 
Correct:  He  would  neither  speak  to  me  nor  look  at  me. 

Nice,  in  the  best  sense,  means  delicate,  precise,  or  accurate. 


178  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

It  should  not  be  used  indiscriminately  as  a  word  of 
approval. 

Correct:  The  question  requires  a  very  nice  judgment. 

None  should  be  used  with  the  singular  form  of  verbs  and 

pronouns. 

Undesirable:  None  of  the  bankers  were  willing  to  grant  this 
strange  request. 

Correct:  None  of  the  bankers  was  willing  to  grant  this 
strange  request. 

Nor.  See  Neither. 

No  sooner  should  be  used  with  than,  not  with  when. 

Incorrect:  We  had  no  sooner  arrived  when  we  were  asked  to 

inspect  the  grounds. 
Correct:  We  had  no  sooner  arrived  than  we  were  asked  to 

inspect  the  grounds. 

0  should  be  distinguished  from  Oh.   The  former  is  com- 
bined with  the  vocative  case  and  is  not  followed  by  a 
punctuation  mark;  the  latter  is  used  as  an  interjection, 
and  is  followed  by  a  comma  or  an  exclamation  ooint. 
Correct: 

(a)  0  foolish  Galatians,  who  hath  bewitched  you  that  ye 
should  not  obey  the  truth? 

(6)  "Oh!  dear,  no,  sir,"  said  the  captain;  "she  's  only  my 
daughter." 

Of  is  unnecessary  with  off. 

Incorrect:  She  took  it  off  of  the  table. 
Correct:  She  took  it  off  the  table. 

Of  a.  See  Kind  of. 

One,  any  one,  anybody,  somebody,  and  a  person  should  be 
used  with  singular  verbs  and  pronouns. 

Onto  is  not  sanctioned  by  the  best  usage.   Upon  can  almost 
always  be  used  instead  of  onto. 

Correct:  He  leaped  upon  his  horse  and  rode  away. 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  SPEECH  AND  WRITING     179 

Ought  should  never  be  used  with  had. 

Incorrect:  Had  I  ought  to  have  sent  that  letter? 
Correct:  Ought  I  to  have  sent  that  letter? 

Out  loud  is  a  crude  phrase  for  aloud. 

Party  should  not  be  used  for  person,  except  in  legal  docu- 
ments. 

Incorrect:  He  was  a  strange-looking  party  with  a  bald  head. 
Correct:  He  was  a  strange-looking  person  with  a  bald  head. 

Per  should  be  used  with  Latin  forms,  such  as  diem,  annum, 
cent,  (centum). 

Undesirable:  Ten  dollars  per  week;  fifty  cents  per  yard. 
Correct:  Ten  dollars  a  week;  fifty  cents  a  yard;  five  thou- 
sand dollars  per  annum. 

Per  cent  should  not  be  used  as  a  noun  instead  of  percentage. 

Bad:  A  very  large  per  cent  of  college  students  secure  good 

positions. 
Better:  A  very  large  percentage  of  college  students  secure 

good  positions. 

Place  should  not  be  used  for  where  in  expressions  such  as 
anywhere,  nowhere,  somewhere. 

Providing  should  not  be  used  for  provided. 

Correct:  I  will  give  a  thousand  dollars,  provided  that  the 
trustees  furnish  the  same  amount. 

Planning  on  should  not  be  used  for  planning  to. 
Incorrect:  We  are  planning  on  going  next  week. 
Correct:  We  are  planning  to  go  next  week. 

Preventative  is  a  corruption  of  preventive.  The  former  word 
should  not  be  used. 

Proven  is  an  obsolescent  word;  it  is  not  actually  incorrect, 
but  it  is  undesirable. 

Quite  (1)  must  be  distinguished  from  quiet;  the  former  is  an 


180  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

adverb  meaning  entirely;  the  latter  is  an  adjective  mean- 
ing peaceful. 

Quite  (2)  should  not  be  used  for  rather  or  somewhat. 

Colloquial:  Despite  my  doubts,  I  found  the  house  quite 
attractive. 

Correct: 

(a)  Despite  my  doubts,  I  found  the  house  rather  attrac- 
tive. 

(6)  The  place  was  quite  [entirely]  deserted. 

Raise  (l)  must  not  be  confused  with  rise.  Raise  suggests  a 
power  outside  the  object  spoken  of;  rise  suggests  a  power 
within  the  object. 

Incorrect:  The  bread  has  raised. 

Correct:  The  bread  has  risen. 

Incorrect:  He  raised  up  on  the  couch. 

Correct:  He  rose  up  on  the  couch.  [Or]  He  raised  himself  up 
on  the  couch. 

Raise  (2)  is  in  bad  taste  when  used  for  rear  or  bring  up. 

Crude:  She  raised  a  family  of  five  children  and  two  nephews. 

Correct: 

(a)  She  brought  up  [or  reared]  a  family  of  five  children 
and  two  nephews. 

(6)  I  was  brought  up  [not  raised]  in  Maryland. 

Real  is  a  vulgarism  for  really  or  very. 

Incorrect:  We  were  real  glad  to  see  her. 
Correct:  We  were  very  glad  to  see  her. 

It  is  correct  to  use  real  for  genuine,  as  in  the  expressions 

real  lace,  real  antiques. 

Recommend  is  a  verb ;  it  should  never  be  used  as  a  noun. 
Illiterate:  Will  you  give  me  a  recommend? 
Correct: 

(a)  Will  you  give  me  a  recommendation? 

(b)  Will  you  recommend  me? 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  SPEECH  AND  WRITING     181 

Remember  of  should  not  be  used  for  remember. 
Incorrect:  I  don't  remember  of  his  being  there. 
Correct:  I  don't  remember  his  being  here. 

Rig  should  not  be  used  for  vehicle  or  conveyance,  or  the 
specific  name  of  the  carriage  or  wagon  intended. 

Same  as  a  pronoun  is  undesirable  except  in  legal  documents 
and  other  very  formal  kinds  of  discourse. 

Incorrect:  He  picked  up  her  fan  and  handed  the  same  to  her. 
Correct:  He  picked  up  her  fan  and  handed  it  to  her. 

Scarcely.   See  Hardly. 

Seldom  and  rarely  should  not  be  used  with  ever. 
Incorrect:  They  rarely  ever  appear  in  public. 
Correct:  They  rarely  [or  seldom]  appear  in  public. 

Sick.  See  III. 

Smart  means  jaunty  or  stylish.  It  should  not,  except  very 
colloquially,  be  used  for  witty  or  clever. 

Correct:  She  was  wearing  a  very  smart  walking-suit. 

So  (1)  is  better  than  as  in  negative  comparisons. 
Correct:  He  is  not  so  friendly  as  he  once  was. 

So  {2)  should  not  be  used  as  an  intensive  instead  of  very, 
unless  it  is  followed  by  a  that  clause. 
Bad:  I  was  so  angry! 
Better:  I  was  so  angry  that  I  could  not  control  myself. 

So  (S)  as  a  connective  is  not  in  good  repute  among  careful 
writers.  The  clause  in  which  it  occurs  can  usually  be 
made  subordinate  with  good  effect. 

Loose  and  colloquial:  I  was  tired,  so  I  did  not  get  on  very 
fast. 

Better:  Since  I  was  tired  [or  because  I  was  tired,  or  being 
tired],  I  did  not  get  on  very  fast. 


182  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

Some  should  not  be  used  as  an  adverb  instead  of  somewhat. 
Incorrect:  He  is  some  better. 
Correct:  He  is  somewhat  better. 

Suspicion  is  a  noun;  it  should  not  be  used  as  a  verb. 
Crude:  I  suspicioned  that  something  was  wrong. 
Correct:  I  suspected  that  something  was  wrong. 

Swell  is  a  vulgarism;  it  should  never  be  used  for  elegant, 
luxurious,  expensive,  attractive,  refined,  fashionable,  dis- 
tinguished, or  beautiful. 

The  ones  is  inelegant.  Those  should  be  used  instead,  or  the 
articles  in  question  should  be  named. 

They  as  an  indefinite  pronoun  should  be  avoided. 

Colloquial:  They  raise  cotton  in  Georgia. 

Better:  Cotton  is  raised  in  Georgia.   [Or]  Raising  cotton  is 
one  of  the  industries  in  Georgia. 

These  kind  should  not  be  used  for  this  kind  or  those  kinds. 
The  plural  these  cannot  properly  be  combined  with  the 
singular  kind. 

Incorrect:  I  have  always  liked  these  kind  of  apples. 
Correct:  I  have  always  liked  this  kind  of  apples. 

Think  for  is  an  expression  in  which  the  word  for  is  redun- 
dant. 

Bad:  I  am  not  so  simple  as  you  think  for. 
Better:  I  am  not  so  simple  as  you  think. 

Those  should  not  be  used  loosely  in  such  a  way  as  to  sug- 
gest an  omitted  relative  clause. 

Undesirable:  He  was  one  of  those  moonshiners. 

Correct:  He  was  one  of  those  moonshiners  that  one  hears  so 
much  about. 

Those  kind  should  not  be  used  for  that  kind  or  those  kinds. 
See  These  kind. 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  SPEECH  AND  WRITING     183 

Too  is  ordinarily  not  to  be  used  with  the  past  participle  of 
verbs,  unless  followed  by  the  word  much. 

Undesirable:  He  was  too  disturbed  to  speak. 
Correct:  He  was  too  much  disturbed  to  speak. 

Ugly,  in  its  strict  sense,  means  ill-looking,  or  disagreeable  in 
appearance.  It  ought  not  to  be  used  for  ill-tempered  or 
vicious. 

Incorrect:  You  had  better  keep  away  from  that  dog,  for  he  is 

ugly  [vicious]. 
Correct:  That  is  an  ugly  [unattractive)  vase. 
Permissible:  The  ruffian  was  in  an  ugly  temper. 

Unique  means  alone  of  its  kind ;  it  should  not  be  used  for 
odd  or  unusual. 

Incorrect:  She  is  a  very  unique  woman. 

Correct:  She  is  a  very  odd  [or  a  most  unusual  ]  woman. 

Correct:  The  unique  copy  of  this  work  is  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Uplift  as  a  noun  is  not  in  good  use.  It  is  correctly  used  as  a 
verb. 

Bad:  He  is  striving  for  the  uplift  of  the  masses. 
Better:  He  is  striving  to  uplift  the  masses. 

Very  should  ordinarily  not  be  used  with  the  past  participle 
of  a  verb  unless  in  combination  with  the  word  much. 

Undesirable:  I  shall  be  very  pleased  to  see  you. 
Correct:  I  shall  be  very  much  pleased  to  see  you. 

Waiting  on,  meaning  waiting  for,  is  a  provincialism. 

Crude:  I  have  been  waiting  on  you  for  ten  minutes. 
Correct:  I  have  been  waiting  ten  minutes  for  you. 

Want  in  is  a  provincialism  for  want  to  come  in. 

Way  is  not  permissible  as  a  substitute  for  away. 


184  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

Bad:  They  could  see  the  camp-fires  way  up  on  the  moun- 
tain. 

Better:  They  could  see  the  camp-fires  away  [or  afar]  up  on 
the  mountain. 

Which.  See  And  which. 

Win  out  is  a  slang  term  for  win.   The  former  expression 
should  be  avoided. 

You,  in  the  indefinite  sense,  is  to  be  used  only  rarely. 

"Beyond  the  orchard  you  can  see  the  brook"  is  more  suit- 
ably rendered,  "Beyond  the  orchard  one  can  see  the  brook." 
The  application  of  this  rule,  however,  depends  upon  the  general 
tone  of  the  discourse;  in  the  familiar  essay,  colloquialisms  are 
not  objectionable. 

Yourself  and  myself  are  properly  used  only  as  reflexives  and 
as  terms  of  emphasis. 

Crude:  Yourself  and  your  friends  are  invited. 
Correct:  You  and  your  friends  are  invited. 
Bad:  Myself  and  my  mother  had  a  narrow  escape. 
Better:  My  mother  and  I  had  a  narrow  escape. 

17.  VULGARISMS 

The  following  expressions  are  to  be  avoided  because  they 
are  in  bad  taste  or  actually  vulgar :  1 

gentleman  friend  tonsorial  artist 

brainy  disremember 

saleslady  to  take  in  a  show 

washlady  cute 

scrublady  get-up 

suicide  (as  a  verb)  phone 

gent  wire  (as  a  verb) 

pants  (as  a  noun)  humans 

1  See  also  "The  Bookman's  Inferno":  Bookman,  September,  1908. 


HACKNEYED  EXPRESSIONS 


185 


18.  HACKNEYED   EXPRESSIONS 


the  light  fantastic 

a  goodly  number 

an  enjoyable  time 

the  fair  sex 

Old  Sol 

the  briny  deep 

the  rolling  waves 

the  cradle  of  the  deep 

the  demon  rum 

galore 

along  this  line 

in  a  brown  study 

lost  in  thought 

bathed  in  tears 

a  factor  in 

partake  of  refreshments 

in  our  midst 

the  student  body 

taper  fingers 

pearly  teeth 

golden  locks 

raven  hair 

a  mouth  like  Cupid's  bow 

fragile  form 

willowy  form 

slender  waist 

eyes  like  stars 

marble  brow 

swan-like  neck 

damask  cheek 

alabaster  brow 

furrowed  brow 

hoary  head 

silvery  locks 

wondrous  fair 

filthy  lucre 

the  grim  reaper 

all  that  was  mortal  of 

the  arms  of  Morpheus 

downy  couch 

a  fish  story 

the  broiling  sun 

a  bashful  swain 


the  psychological  moment 

the  irony  of  fate 

more  easily  imagined  than  de- 
scribed 

beggars  description 

few  equals  and  no  superiors 

from  this  standpoint 

it  stands  to  reason 

phenomenal 

dull  thud 

the  table  groaned 

more  forcible  than  polite 

single  blessedness 

a  happy  benedict 

brawny  arms 

brave  as  a  lion 

ran  like  a  frightened  deer 

nipped  in  the  bud 

flushed  with  pride 

poor  but  honest 

hoping  you  are  the  same 

a  single  tree  stands  like  a  sentinel 

the  cottage  nestles  below  the  hill 

the  rippling  waves 

the  birds  were  singing  their  morn' 
ing  songs 

my  childhood  days 

some  one  has  said 

in  the  words  of  the  poet 

a  soft  white  mantle  of  snow 

velvety  grass 

the  lake  stretched  like  a  mirror 

a  river  like  a  silver  ribbon 

the  moon  in  all  its  glory 

fair  as  a  goddess 

her  queenly  form 

eyes  of  heaven's  own  blue 

the  contracting  parties 

the  happy  pair 

the  blushing  bride 

led  her  to  the  altar 

almond-eyed  Celestials 

a  distinguished  Nimrod 


186 


THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 


Rich  as  Crcesus 

The  bounding  billow 

Bated  breath 

Green  with  envy 

Heartless  wretch 

A  heated  argument 

The  form  of  an  Apollo 

Driving  like  Jehu 

In  the  snare  of  Cupid 

Order  out  of  chaos 

A  long-felt  want 

At  one  fell  swoop 

The  proud  possessor  of 

Tired  but  happy 

No  sooner  said  than  done 

Sadder  and  wiser 

The  worse  for  wear 

Reigns  supreme 

Gives  the  finishing  touches  to  the 

picture 
The  finny  tribe 


A  sumptuous  repast 

Caudal  appendage 

Launched  into  eternity 

Too  full  for  utterance 

Applauded  to  the  echo 

The  dreamy  mazes  of  the  waltz 

The  devouring  element 

Consigned  to  earth 

Engaged  in  commercial  pursuits 

The  dizzy  heights  of  fame 

My  paternal  ancestor 

Tumultuous  applause 

Words  fail  me 

Palatial  residence 

The  fragrant  weed 

The  festive  board 

A  few  well-chosen  words 

A  daintily  gloved  hand 

Succulent  bivalve 

Conspicuous  by  its  absence 

In  all  its  phases 


19.  HACKNEYED   QUOTATIONS 


Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man 

There 's  the  rub 

My  prophetic  soul 

A  consummation  devoutly  to  be 

wished 
More  in  sorrow  than  in  anger 
The  sleep  of  the  just 
The  cup  that  cheers 
Patience  on  a  monument 
Lo,  the  poor  Indian 
It  is  better  to  have  loved  and 

lost 
Method  in  his  madness 
A  thing  of  beauty 
The  best-laid  plans  of  mice  and 

men 
None  but  the  brave  deserves  the 

fair 
The  green-eyed  monster 
Kind  words  can  never  die 
Grave  and  reverend  signiors 


Bring  down  my  gray  hairs  with 

sorrow  to  the  grave 
The  bosom  of  his  family 
Darkness  that  could  be  felt 
From  Dan  to  Beersheba 
The  king  of  terrors 
Lick  the  dust 
His  name  is  Legion 
Clothed  and  in  his  right  mind 
His  better  half 
Thereby  hangs  a  tale 
Music,  heavenly  maid 
A  shocking  bad  hat 
He  that  runs  may  read 
The  head  that  wears  a  crown 
Two  heads  are  better  than  one 
Faint  heart  ne  'er  won  fair  lady 
The  last  rose  of  summer 
It  smells  to  heaven 
The  ills  that  flesh  is  heir  to 
A  woman  scorned 


HACKNEYED  QUOTATIONS 


187 


Hell  is  paved  with  good  intentions 

The  observed  of  all  observers 

A  poor  thing  but  mine  own 

A  mute  inglorious  Milton 

What 's  in  a  name? 

The  sturdy  oak  and  clinging  vine 

The  old  oaken  bucket 

Arose  as  one  man 

A  perfect  woman  nobly  planned 

Drown  his  sorrows  in  the  cup 

Making  night  hideous 

Plain  living  and  high  thinking 

Hitch  your  wagon  to  a  star 

Hold  the  mirror  up  to  nature 

There 's  no  place  like  home 

Honesty  is  the  best  policy 

Hope  springs  eternal 

'T  was  ever  thus 

Improve  each  shining  hour 

The  wee  small  hours 

To  err  is  human 

Human  face  divine 

Human  nature's  daily  food 

Greenland's  icy  mountains 

Where  ignorance  is  bliss 

Guide,  philosopher,  and  friend 

Foot-prints  on  the  sands  of  time 

Not  wisely  but  too  well 

Love's  young  dream 

Speed  the  parting  guest 

Not  lost,  but  gone  before 

Take  the  good  the  gods  provide 

thee 
Ring  out,  wild  bells 
Stolen  sweets 
Better  late  than  never 
Birds  in  their  little  nests  agree 
To  the  bitter  end 
Chewing  the  cud  of  sweet  and 

bitter  fancy 
Heart  whole  and  fancy  free 
In  maiden  meditation,  fancy  free 
Araby  the  Blest 
The  wind  blew  great  guns 
Love  is  blind 


Death  loves  a  shining  mark 

Born  to  blush  unseen 

Nominated  in  the  bond 

Sermons  in  stones 

Some  have  greatness  thrust  upon 
them 

The  staff  of  life 

The  straight  and  narrow  way 

A  counterfeit  presentment 

The  wheel  of  fortune 

Passing  rich 

Passing  fair 

Frailty,  thy  name  is  woman 

I  could  a  tale  unfold 

Lend  me  your  ears 

A  friend  in  need 

The  uses  of  adversity 

Eat,  drink,  and  be  merry 

Poor  but  honest 

Full  of  years  and  honors 

The  fun  grew  fast  and  furious 

The  sound  of  revelry  by  night 

A  gay  Lothario 

Music  hath  charms 

O,  wad  some  power  the  giftie  gie  us 

To  see  oursel's  as  ithers  see  us 

The  rose-bud  garden  of  girls 

Go  where  glory  waits  thee 

A  sight  for  gods  and  men 

A  daughter  of  the  gods 

Divinely  tall  and  most  divinely 
fair 

Night,  sable  goddess 

The  poet's  eye  in  a  fine  frenzy 
rolling 

As  good  as  she  was  fair 

Kind  hearts  are  more  than  coro- 
nets 

Pride  will  have  a  fall 

How  are  the  mighty  fallen 

A  household  word 

In  the  spring  a  young  man's  fancy 

The  fatal  gift  of  beauty 

Faultily  faultless,   icily  regular 
splendidly  null 


188 


THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 


The  right  hand  of  fellowship 

Life's  fitful  fever 

The  Pierian  spring 

The  divine  afflatus 

The  fleshpots  of  Egypt 

Waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert 

air 
The  motley  crowd 
Men  may  come  and  men  may  go 
Men  were  deceivers  ever 
The  vast  forever 
Not  all  my  fancy  painted 
More  sinned  against  than  sinning 
To  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown 
The  sweat  of  his  brow 
Far  from  the  madding  crowd 
I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered 
The  drapery  of  his  couch 
Fold  their  tents  like  the  Arab 
A  lean  and  hungry  look 
Dan  Chaucer 
Dan  Cupid 
Her  damask  cheek 
What  is  so  rare  as  a  day  in  June 
Monarch  of  all  I  survey 
Like  a  worm  i'  the  bud 
Confusion  worse  confounded 
The  course  of  true  love 
English  undented 
A  watery  grave 

Fearfully  and  wonderfully  made 
Man  proposes,  God  disposes 
One  touch  of  nature 
Merry  as  a  marriage  bell 
Matches  are  made  in  heaven 
The  melancholy  days  are  come 
Blushing  like  the  rose 


This  mortal  coil 

Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers 

Absence  makes  the  heart  grow 
fonder 

Murder  the  King's  English 

Lisp  in  numbers 

An  aching  void 

Fools  rush  in 

The  milk  of  human  kindness 

A  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men 

From  the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous 

A  green  old  age 

Agree  to  disagree 

Trifles  light  as  air 

No  more  worlds  to  conquer 

All  is  vanity 

The  almighty  dollar 

A  fly  in  the  ointment 

The  last  infirmity  of  noble  minds 

Do  not  let  your  angry  passions 
rise 

The  apple  of  his  eye 

Art  is  long  and  time  is  fleeting 

Arms  and  the  man 

The  azure  robe  of  night 

A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  for- 
ever 

That  bad  eminence 

The  barefoot  boy 

Barkis  is  willin' 

The  green  bay  tree 

Fingers  were  made  before  forks 

Beard  the  lion  in  his  den 

Beauty  unadorned 

Rise  with  the  lark 

Busy  as  a  bee 


GENERAL  EXERCISE  IN  THE  USE  OF 
LANGUAGE 

Make  all  possible  improvements  in  these  sentences:  — 

1.  I  was  filled  with  fear  when  I  saw  him  appear. 

2.  This  ear-splitting  noise  was  not  considered  a  fitting  conclu- 


GENERAL  EXERCISE  189 

sion  to  the  deliberations  of  the  council  then  sitting  for  the 
last  time. 

3.  The  pernicious  practice  of  punishing  persons  who  have  not 
been  proved  guilty  was  one  of  the  disgraceful  proceedings 
which  the  institution  ought  never  to  have  been  guilty  of. 

4.  My  temper  was  ruffled  and  I  felt  baffled  by  the  shuffling 
policies  of  the  lieutenant. 

5.  Long  may  they  wait  and  far  may  they  seek  ere  they  find  the 
fair  maid  who  has  fled  from  her  home. 

6.  I  have  never  heard  how  they  caught  the  bird. 

7.  The  drunken  ruffians  thrust  him  roughly  into  the  dust  and 
hushed  his  cries  by  stunning  and  gagging  him. 

8.  The  joy  of  the  boy  and  his  clamor  of  glee  delighted  the  heart 
of  the  hoary  old  man. 

9.  By  means  of  the  exertion  of  a  little  care  on  your  part,  you  can 
prevent  the  possibility  of  such  an  accident's  occurring  again. 

10.  I  believe  him  to  be  perfectly  and  absolutely  honest. 

11.  The  boy  was  on  top  of  the  roof  of  the  house. 

12.  It  was  the  climax  and  pinnacle  of  extravagance  for  one  so 
poor  as  he. 

13.  Since  he  was  outside  of  the  pasture  he  was  in  no  danger  what- 
ever. 

14.  I  never  knew  him  at  all,  to  the  slightest  degree. 

15.  He  reduplicated  the  figures  again. 

16.  It  reflects  back  the  light  in  a  very  strange  manner. 

17.  There  were  a  thousand  people  came  to  hear  that  last  speech 

18.  I  have  not  finished  with  this  piece  of  work. 

19.  He  did  not  hesitate  to  express  a  preference  for  those  elevating 
volumes  which  deal  with  subjects  of  a  religious  nature. 

20.  I  myself  heard  it  with  my  own  ears,  and  because  of  the  testi- 
mony of  my  own  senses  I  cannot  doubt  from  whence  the  noise 
proceeded. 

21.  It  is  well  known  that  he  was  at  times  and  on  occasion  unable* 
to  restrain  the  inherited  and  inborn  craving  which  he  had  for 
beverages  of  an  alcoholic  nature,  that  is  to  say  for  intoxicat- 
ing liquors. 

22.  The  house  was  built  of  stucco,  and  it  had  been  whitewashed 
until  its  exterior  surface  presented  to  the  eye  a  dazzling  purity 
of  color. 

23.  We  now  prepared  to  construct  our  temporary  shelter  for  the 
ensuing  night.   Two  of  our  party  cut  the  saplings  which  we 


190  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 

intended  to  use,  and  two  more  of  the  group  gathered  boughs 
out  of  which  to  construct  the  shelter. 

24.  On  February  15,  1898,  while  our  battleship  Maine,  belonging 
to  the  United  States,  was  anchored  in  Havana  harbor,  it 
was  blown  up  and  destroyed  by  means  of  a  sunken  charge 
of  powder,  and  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  sailors  and 
other  men  on  board  were  blown  up  with  it  and  lost  their 
lives. 

25.  The -club  will  hold  its  first  dance  Tuesday,  October  6,  and 
after  this  dance  they  will  hold  one  every  Tuesday  night  for 
the  rest  of  the  dancing  season.  At  these  dances  the  latest 
dances  will  be  danced  and  it  is  expected  that  all  the  dances 
will  be  well  attended,  as  all  the  former  dances  at  this  club 
have  been.  Eden  Hall  is  the  place  where  the  club  is  to  hold 
their  dances.  News-paper  clipping. 

26.  She  was  passing  fair,  with  golden  locks  and  eyes  like  stars. 

27.  The  table  groaned  with  toothsome  viands. 

28.  Those  kind  of  hats  are  very  swell  this  fall. 

29.  He  was  very  much  exhausted  caused  by  the  vigorous  en- 
deavors he  had  made  to  lift  the  carriage  from  the  bog. 

30.  Will  it  be  urged  that  the  four  Gospels  are  as  old  or  even 
older  than  tradition. 

31.  He  has  recuperated  sufficiently  from  the  disease  to  be  able 
to  partake  of  his  customary  food. 

32.  Fatal  injuries  seldom  ever  occur  in  football. 

33.  She  was  born  in  Ireland  but  raised  in  this  country. 

34.  Not  even  the  sacred  desk  could  be  rescued  from  the  devour- 
ing element. 

35.  Several  ships  were  sunk,  which,  while  obsolete,  still  were 
useful  vessels. 

36.  Taken  in  the  same  places  where  the  story  of  the  life  of  David 
Copperfield  and  his  friends  is  developed,  we  have  unfurled 
before  us  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  the  quaint  English 
countryside  in  the  pictures. 

37.  A  few  frightened  foreigners  were  hovering  around  like  mice 
in  a  trap. 

38.  The  graduate  believes  that  he  will  readily  achieve  recognition 
and  that  the  field  of  opportunity  will  hold  her  doors  open  to 
him. 

39.  You  must  be  careful  in  the  handling  of  a  gun.  They  are  a 
useful  instrument  in  that  for  which  they  were  intended. 


IV 

WRITTEN   COMPOSITION 
i.  STEPS   IN  THEME-WRITING 

1.  The  material  used  in  writing  may  be  collected  from 
the  following  sources :  — 

(a)  Memory  or  notes  of  past  experience. 
(6)  Observation,  experiment,  thought,  or  imagina- 
tion, 
(c)  Writings  of  other  people. 

2.  A  theme  on  any  subject  may  consist  of  three  fac- 
tors :  — 

(a)  Material,  consisting  of  thoughts,  ideas,  facts,  gen- 
eralizations, illustrations,  etc. 

(6)  Organization  of  material,  or  the  arrangement  of 
the  ideas  according  to  some  coherent  and  logical 
plan. 

(c)  Expression  of  the  ideas  in  words  chosen  to  produce 
a  definite  and  emphatic  impression  on  the  reader. 

3«  In  order  to  preserve  unity  in  treatment,  decide  upon 
a  definite  limitation  of  your  subject.  Determine  how  much 
space  you  have  at  your  command.  Narrow  your  subject  to 
the  proportions  of  that  space.  Reconcile  yourself  to  the 
necessity  of  rejecting  some  of  the  material  that  you  have 
collected. 

Choose  also  a  definite  point  of  view  with  regard  to  your 
subject  and  preserve  it  consistently  throughout.  If  for  any 
reason  your  point  of  view  has  to  be  changed,  be  careful  to 
indicate  the  change,  even  if  only  by  suggestion. 


192  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

4.  Determine  upon  a  definite  plan  of  treatment  which 
can  be  embodied  in  an  outline  and  which  will  clearly  indi- 
cate the  relation  of  the  different  parts  to  one  another.  (See 
Notes  on  Outlines,  pages  193-99.) 

5.  With  the  outlines  before  you,  write  a  rough  draft  of 
your  theme.  If  you  can  do  this  at  one  sitting,  so  much  the 
better.  Do  not  stop  for  correctness  in  small  details,  but 
try  to  get  your  ideas  roughly  into  shape. 

6.  If  possible  allow  some  hours  to  elapse  after  you  have 
written  your  rough  draft  before  you  revise  it  carefully  and 
critically.  Make  whatever  additions,  omissions,  and  altera- 
tions are  necessary  in  statement.  See  that  your  spelling, 
punctuation,  grammar,  sentence  structure,  and  choice  of 
words  are  correct. 

7.  Make  a  final,  clean  copy  of  your  manuscript.  (See 
Notes  on  Manuscript,  pages  199-201.) 

8.  The  manuscript  is  then  submitted  to  judgment  and 
criticism  of  some  kind.  This  process  may  include  the  fol- 
lowing aspects  of  your  work :  — 

(a)  Appearance  of  manuscript. 

(b)  Selection  and  arrangement  of  material. 

(c)  General  method  of  treatment  and  point  of  view. 

(d)  Vocabulary :  range,  precision,  propriety. 

(e)  Accuracy  of  grammar  and  sentence  structure. 
(/)  Style. 

(g)  Originality  in  idea  or  in  expression. 

<)•  After  your  theme  has  been  criticized,  revise  it  care- 
fully, make  the  corrections  indicated,  and  embody  the  sug- 
gestions of  your  critic.  If  necessary,  rewrite  the  whole 
theme.  This  careful  revision  or  reconstruction  will  do  you 
more  good  than  writing  an  entirely  new  theme. 


OUTLINES  193 

REFERENCES 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Composition  Oral  and  Written,  pp.  163-96. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.  A  College  Manual  of  Rhetoric. 
Brewster,  W.  T.  English  Composition  and  Style,  pp.  3-87. 
Brown  and  Barnes.   The  Art  of  Writing  English,  pp.  158-222. 
Canby  and  others.    English  Composition  in   Theory  and  Practice 

pp.  1-72. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.   Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  189-200. 
Donnelly,  F.  P.   Imitation  and  Analysis,  pp.  145-87. 
Espenshade,  A.  H.  Essentials  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  24- 

120. 
Forbes,  A.  H.  Essays  and  How  to  Write  Them. 
Fulton,  Edward.  English  Prose  Composition. 
Genung,  J.  F.   Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  108-71;  245-325 
Genung,  J.  F.   The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  389-476. 
Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Composition,  pp.  1-18. 
Herrick  and  Damon.    New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools, 

pp. 29-46. 
Higginson,  T.  W.  Hints  on  Writing  and  Speech-Making. 
Linn,  J.  W.    The  Essentials  of  English  Composition,  pp.  3-31. 
Lockwood,  S.  E.  H.  Lessons  in  English,  pp.  279-334. 
Miles,  Eustace  H.  Essays  in  the  Making. 
Nason,  A.  H.  Short  Themes;  a  Freshman  Manual. 
Neal,  R.  W.   Thought  Building  in  Composition. 
Pearson,  H.  G.    The  Principles  of  Composition. 
Scott  and  Denney.  Aphorisms  for  Teachers  of  English  Composition 
Stebbins,  C.  M.  A  Progressive  Course  in  English,  pp.  132^44. 
Swinton,  William.   A  School  Manual  of  English  Composition. 
Swinton,  William.  School  Composition. 

Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  1-33;  348-61. 
Thorndike,  A.  H.  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  pp.  3-35,c 

10.5-56. 
Wendell,  Barrett.  English  Composition,  pp.  150-92. 
Williams,  William.   Composition  and  Rhetoric  by  Practice,  pp.  270- 

84. 
Woolley,  E.  C.    Exercises  in  English. 

2.  OUTLINES 

I .  The  chief  advantages  in  making  an  outline  of  a  theme, 
essay,  or  article  to  be  written  are  the  following:  — 

(a)  An  outline  necessitates  a  clear  statement  of  the 
subject  or  problem  to  be  treated.    It  therefore 


194  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

helps  at  the  outset  to  eliminate  vagueness  in 
thought  and  expression. 

(6)  It  also  forces  the  writer  to  think  about  the  whole 
subject  before  beginning  to  write  about  it.  The 
outline,  therefore,  helps  to  insure  completeness  and 
unity  in  treatment. 

(c)  It  demands  that  the  writer  shall  consider  all  the 
parts  of  his  subject  in  relation  to  each  other  and  to 
the  whole.  The  outline,  therefore,  is  of  assistance 
in  securing  proper  proportion  and  coherence  of 
parts. 

2.  The  writer  should,  at  the  outset,  clearly  understand 
the  difference  between  a  summary  or  precis  and  a  topical 
or  analytical  outline. 

(a)  A  summary  or  precis  is  a  reduction  or  concentra- 
tion of  the  ideas  of  a  piece  of  writing  to  a  smaller 
form  or  miniature  treatment.  It  eliminates  the 
unimportant,  and  mentions  only  the  most  im- 
portant ideas  and  facts.  It  is  merely  an  abridged 
but  coherent  treatment  of  the  original,  and  gives 
the  gist  of  the  writer's  remarks.  The  ideas  are 
expressed  in  the  form  of  complete  sentences,  and 
the  summary  may  or  may  not  have  paragraph 
divisions.  A  summary  may  be  made  of  any  kind 
of  writing,  and  is  generally  made  by  some  one 
other  than  the  writer  for  convenience  and  econ- 
omy of  reference.  Variations  are  to  be  found  in 
book  reviews,  in  bibliographical  notes,  in  pref- 
aces, in  introductions,  and  in  concluding  chapters 
of  some  books. 
(6)  A  topical  or  analytical  outline  is  not  expressed  in 
the  form  of  continuous  prose,  but  consists  of  an 
arrangement  of  topics  or  headings  which  indicate 
all  the  ideas  of  the  piece  of  writing  considered  and 


OUTLINES  195 

their  relation  to  one  another.  The  outline  is  the 
framework  or  structural  basis  into  which  the 
complete  sentences  are  fitted  when  the  process  of 
writing  begins.  An  outline  of  this  kind  cannot 
always  be  made,  but  it  is  generally  used  by  a 
writer  before  beginning  work  upon  a  piece  of  sci- 
entific, logical,  historical,  philosophical,  or  argu- 
mentative writing. 

3.  In  formal  writing  the  preliminary  organization  of 
ideas  necessitated  by  an  outline  should  be  implicit  or 
explicit.  In  the  case  of  a  brief  treatment  of  a  simple  sub- 
ject the  matter  may  be  so  well  organized  in  the  writer's 
mind  that  no  outline  has  to  be  made;  in  the  case  of  more 
complicated  and  unfamiliar  subjects,  the  labor  of  the 
writer  and  the  reader  will  be  considerably  lessened  if  a  log- 
ical and  inclusive  outline  is  made  and  carefully  revised 
before  any  writing  is  done. 

4.  Decide  whether  your  subject  conforms  roughly  to 
either  of  the  following  types :  — 

(a)  An  introduction  (which  really  introduces  the  sub- 
ject by  giving  to  it  some  connection  with  the 
reader's  knowledge  or  experience)  preceding  the 
main  treatment.  This  latter  explains  at  length 
and  in  detail  the  idea  or  the  problem  under  con- 
sideration and  is  in  turn  followed  by  a  conclusion, 
which  brings  the  treatment  to  a  natural  and 
definite  end,  makes  applications,  draws  infer- 
ences, or  suggests  new  ideas,  fresh  problems,  or 
desirable  action. 

The  student  should  rid  himself  of  the  idea  that 
every  piece  of  writing  must  have  an  introduction, 
a  body,  and  a  conclusion,  and  should  find  in- 
stances of  good  pieces  of  writing  which  do  not 


196  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

conform  to  this  Procrustean  rhetorical  require- 
ment. 
(b)  A  series  of  steps  or  ideas  which  are  related  either 
logically,  mechanically,  causally,  or  chronologi- 
cally (as  is  frequently  the  case  in  writing  about 
processes,  apparatus,  machines,  events,  institu- 
tions, conceptions,  etc.). 

5.  In  considering  your  material,  before  you  make  your 
outline,  decide  from  which  of  the  following  points  of  view 
you  will  treat  your  subject:  — 

(a)  The  logical  point  of  view,  in  which  case  you  sub- 
ordinate your  reader's  interest  to  the  accurate  and 
complete  representation  of  your  subject,  and 
strive  for  a  judicious  arrangement  of  parts.  In 
this  case  your  material  dominates  your  method. 
Examples  of  this  point  of  view  are  to  be  found  in 
scientific  and  technical  writing  in  encyclopaedias, 
textbooks,  and  special  periodicals. 

(6)  The  psychological  point  of  view,  in  which  case 
your  reader's  interest  and  clearness  of  conception 
are  your  chief  aims,  and  involve  such  an  arrange- 
ment of  your  material  that  it  will  produce  a  vivid, 
easily  understood,  and  pleasing  impression.  In 
this  case  your  method  dominates  your  material. 
Instances  of  this  point  of  view  may  be  found  in 
addresses,  in  lectures,  in  the  classroom,  and  in 
popular  articles  on  scientific  and  philosophical 
subjects. 

6.  The  following  questions  should  be  considered  by  the 
writer  in  making  an  analytical  or  topical  outline :  — 

(a)  Has  enough  material  been  collected  so  that  there 
is  a  reasonable  probability  that  the  writer  is  in 
possession  of  all  the  important  aspects  of  the  sub- 


OUTLINES  197 

ject  and  that  material  will  not  subsequently  be 
found  which  will  necessitate  a  reorganization  of 
the  outline? 
(6)  How  much  of  the  material  at  hand  is  unnecessary 
or  irrelevant  and  may  be  rejected? 

(c)  Of  the  remaining  material,  which  are  the  most 
important  ideas  or  facts? 

(d)  Which  are  coordinate  and  which  are  clearly  sub- 
ordinate? Note  whether  those  selected  as  sub- 
ordinate are  logically  subordinate  or  are  merely  of 
minor  interest. 

(e)  Which  is  the  most  coherent  and  effective  arrange- 
ment? The  order  is  sometimes  determined  by  the 
subject  itself,  but  when  there  are  several  possible 
methods  of  arrangement,  test  their  relative  value 
by  experiment.  When  cards  are  used,  this  process 
becomes  very  simple. 

(/)  Determine  approximately  the  amount  of  space 
to  be  given  to  the  development  of  each  of  the 
main  ideas,  and  indicate  the  estimated  words  or 
pages  by  a  number  in  brackets  after  the  main 
heading. 

(g)  What  mechanical  arrangement  of  headings  seems 
best?  How  complete  will  you  make  your  outline 
with  regard  to  details? 

(h)  Decide  whether  an  abbreviated  form  of  your 
outline  will  be  of  assistance  to  your  reader  if  pre- 
fixed or  appended  to  your  treatment  of  your 
subject. 

7.  With  regard  to  the  construction  or  choice  of  headings, 
it  is  well  to  remember  that :  — 

(a)  They  should  represent  main  divisions,  important 
aspects,  or  distinct  steps  in  the  treatment  of  the 
subject. 


198  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

(6)  They  should  as  far  as  possible  be  consistently 
expressed  in  the  form  of  nouns,  noun  phrases,  or 
complete  sentences. 

(c)  When  related  they  should  be  expressed  in  parallel 
form. 

(d)  They  should  be  as  brief  as  is  compatible  with 
clearness. 

(e)  They  should  be  so  worded  as  to  make  the  most 
important  element  in  the  heading  emphatic. 

8.  With  regard  to  the  details  of  mechanical  arrange- 
ment, bear  in  mind  the  following  suggestions :  — 

(a)  Headings  of  coordinate  value  should  always  be 
the  same  distance  from  the  left-hand  margin. 

(b)  Subordinate  headings  should  always  be  indented 
under  the  heading  to  which  they  are  subordinate; 
and  subheadings  which  are  of  equal  value  should 
be  indented  the  same  distance. 

(c)  When  headings  or  notes  run  over  one  line,  the 
second  line  should  begin  either  level  with  the  first 
word  of  the  preceding  line  or  else  should  be  in- 
dented. It  should  never  run  out  to  the  margin  or 
begin  level  with  the  number  or  letter  indicating 
the  heading. 

(d)  Avoid  the  practice  of  too  elaborate  subordination. 
Do  not  put  in  the  form  of  minute  headings  ma- 
terial not  important  to  the  outline.  Too  much 
detail  is  confusing  and  properly  belongs  in  the 
text. 

(e)  The  marks  generally  used  to  indicate  headings 
and  subheadings  are  Roman  (I,  II,  III,  etc.)  and 
Arabic  numerals  (1,  2,  3,  etc.),  capitals  (A,  B,  C, 
etc.)  and  small  letters  (a,  b,  c,  etc.),  and  occa- 
sionally the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet  (a,  /?, 
etc.). 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  MANUSCRIPT         199 

(/)  Roman  numerals  are  generally  used  to  indicate 
large  parts  or  sections  of  an  outline.  Letters 
should  not  be  used  where  there  are  a  large  number 
of  headings  of  coordinate  value  or  where  numeri- 
cal order  is  significant.  The  system  of  numeration 
indicated  in  A',  A",  or  A1,  A2,  or  l1,  l2,  l3,  has 
obvious  disadvantages. 

(g)  Except  in  the  case  of  a  brief  for  an  argument,  do 
not  use  the  terms  "Introduction"  and  "Conclu- 
sion" unless  they  include  material  distinct  from 
that  in  the  rest  of  the  outline. 

(h)  A  tabulated  list  or  matter  arranged  in  columns 
should  be  clearly  indented  under  its  special  head- 
ing. Any  matter  following  the  tabulation  and 
included  in  the  note  should  follow  rules  (a),  (b), 
and  (c)  given  above. 

9.  With  regard  to  the  relation  of  subordinate  headings 
to  main  headings :  — 

(a)  Do  not  put  as  a  subheading  material  that  can 
with  advantage  either  be  included  without  diffi- 
culty in  the  main  heading  or  else  omitted  alto- 
gether without  loss. 
\b)  A  single  subheading  cannot  be  justified, 
(c)  Avoid  writing  as  a  subheading  what  is  really 
coordinate  with  the  preceding  main  heading. 

3.  THE  PREPARATION   OF  MANUSCRIPT 

In  preparing  manuscript  for  classwork,  observe  the  fol- 
lowing directions :  — 
1.  Paper  and  ink:  — 

(a)  Use  regulation  theme-paper. 
(6)  Do  not  use  soiled,  torn,  or  mussed  sheets  of  paper, 
(c)  Use  only  black  or  blue-black  ink,  —  never  red, 
green,  or  violet. 


200  WRITTEN   COMPOSITION 

2.  Margins  and  spaces :  — 

(a)  Leave  a  margin  of  at  least  an  inch  at  the  left  side 

of  the  paper. 
(6)  Do  not  crowd  the  words  at  the  right  end  of  the 

line,  nor  at  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

(c)  Clearly  indent  the  first  line  of  each  paragraph. 

(d)  Do  not  leave  a  space  at  the  right  end  of  the  line 
unless  the  next  line  is  to  be  indented. 

3.  Titles  and  page-numbers:  — 

(a)  Write  the  title  on  the  first  line  of  the  paper,  not  in 

the  space  above  the  line. 
(6)  Do  not  underscore  the  title,  nor  enclose  it  in 

quotation  marks, 
(c)  Number  pages  consistently,  either  in  the  middle 

of  the  top  or  bottom  or  in  the  upper  right-hand 

corner. 

4.  Writing :  — 

(a)  Write  legibly,  in  a  large,  clear  hand. 

(b)  Do  not  use  unnecessary  flourishes,  or  unusual 
methods  of  placing  or  connecting  letters. 

(c)  Dot  your  i's  and  cross  your  t's 

(d)  Be  simple  and  conventional. 

5.  Erasures  and  corrections :  — 

(a)  Erase  neatly,  if  it  is  necessary  to  erase  at  all. 
(6)  Do  not  hand  in  a  paper  that  is  untidy  with  many 
erasures. 

(c)  Do  not  use  parentheses  for  correcting  a  word  or  a 
phrase ;  draw  a  horizontal  line  neatly  through  the 
offending  expression. 

(d)  Use  the  caret  (A)  when  inserting  words  or 
phrases  which  have  been  omitted. 

6.  Folding  and  fastening :  — 

(a)  Fold  the  paper  vertically  and  evenly  through  the 
middle. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  MANUSCRIPT 


201 


(b)  Do  not  fold  down  the  corners  of  the  manuscript. 

(c)  Do  not  fasten  the  sheets  of  paper  together,  unless 
with  a  removable  clip. 

7.  Indorsement :  — 

(a)  Indorse  the  manuscript  on  the  upper  part  of  the 

reverse  side. 
(6)  Give  the  following  data:  Title  of  manuscript; 

name  of  author;  date;  name  of  instructor;  number 

of  theme;  name  or  number  of  course;  section  or 

division  of  class, 
(c)  Note  the  form  printed  below :  — 


Theme  6  Oct.  9,  1914 

Green  Caps  for  Freshmen 

Harold  L.  Emerson 

English  I.  Section  5 

Dr.  Elliott 


202  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

REFERENCES 

Fowler,  N.  C.   The  Art  of  Story-Writing,  pp.  98-126;  193-203. 
Gaskell,  G.  A.  How  to  Write  for  the  Press,  pp.  61-106. 
Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Corn-position,  pp.  19  et.  seq. 
Herrick  and  Damon.    New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools, 

p.  498. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.   Enlarged  Practice-Book  in  English  Composition, 

pp.  367-72. 
Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  397-409. 
Williams,  William.  Composition  and  Rhetoric  by  Practice,  pp.  322- 

29. 
Woolley,  E.  C.  Mechanics  of  Writing,  pp.  1-24. 

4.  MARKS   FOR  THE   CORRECTION   OF  THEMES 

amb  ambiguous. 

ant  antecedent  omitted  or  incorrect. 

bal  make  parts  of  the  sentence  balance. 

cap  use  capital  letter  for  lower  case  letter  underlined  three 

times. 

co  sentence  lacks  coherence, 

coll  language  is  colloquial, 

est  error  in  construction. 

||  est  make  construction  parallel. 

D  see  dictionary. 

E  poor  or  incorrect  English, 

emp  emphasis  lacking  or  incorrect. 

F.W.  "Fine  Writing";  affectation;  artificiality. 

fig  figure  of  speech  wrong  or  incongruous, 

gr  error  in  grammar. 

K  awkward  word,  expression,  or  construction. 

L  loose  construction  or  thought. 

I.e.  use  lower  case  letter  instead  of  capital  letter  marked 

thus,  0. 

MS  bad  manuscript;  untidy,  careless,  or  torn, 

p  error  in  punctuation, 

p.c.  comma  fault. 
Par  or  ^  begin  a  new  paragraph, 

per  make  sentence  periodic, 

quots  use  quotation  marks, 

red  redundant. 


SHORT-THEME  SUBJECTS 


203 


rep 

repetition  of  word  or  idea. 

S 

sentence  is  badly  constructed  or  incomplete. 

sp 

error  in  spelling. 

Th 

theme. 

for 

transpose  words  or  sentences. 

U 

sentence  or  paragraph  lacks  unity. 

V 

vagueness  in  thought  ( 

)r  expression. 

W 

weak. 

w  w 

wrong  word. 

X 

obvious  error. 

A 

obvious  omission. 

1 

begin  a  new  paragraph 

i. 

No  If       do  not  begin  a  new  paragraph. 

] 

indent 

8 

omit  word  or  sentence  through  which  a  line  has  been 

drawn. 

U 

omit  words  between  brackets. 

unite. 

r 

divide  word  or  sentence  here. 

5.   SHORT-THEME   SUBJECTS 

i. 

College  Students'  Reading 

19.  Librarians 

2. 

Landladies 

20.  Strangers  on  the  Campus 

3. 

The  Humors  of  Boarding 

21.  An  Oriental  Shop 

4. 

House-Rules 

22.  Going  Abroad 

5. 

Letters  Home 

23.  "See  America  First" 

6. 

Moving  Day 

24.  Down  at  the  Wharf 

7. 

Getting  Ready  for  College 

25.  Hanging  Pictures 

8. 

Packing  a  Trunk 

26.  In  the  Dean's  Office 

9. 

The  Dancing  Class 

27.  Dropped 

10. 

My  Music  Lesson 

28.  Homesick 

11. 

Running  a  High  School  Pa- 

29. The  Rights  of  Roommates 

per 

30.  Why  I  Failed 

12. 

How   a   High   School   Boy 

31.  Answering  the  Telephone 

Earns  Money 

32.  How  to  ring  a  Fire  Alarm 

13. 

A  Fancy-Dress  Party 

33.  In  the  Library 

14. 

Keeping  One's    Clothes    in 

34.  Singing  in  the  Choir 

Order 

35.  The  Country  Boy  at  Col- 

15. 

Boarding-House  Furniture 

lege 

16. 

The  Girls'  Dormitory 

36.  Being  a  Guest 

17. 

A  Cooking  Lesson 

37.  The  Church  Fair 

18. 

Scenes  in  a  College  Library 

38.  An  Ocean  Voyage 

204 


WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 


39.  The  Street  Parade 

40.  A  College  Professor 

41.  Afternoon  Tea 

42.  The  Horse  Race 

43.  My  Visitors 

44.  A  Trip  on  the  Lake 

45.  The  Circus  Parade 

46.  Our  Town  at  Election  Time 

47.  The  Street-Car  Conductor 

48.  College  Snobs 

49.  Janitors  and  Cleaning  Wo- 
men 

50.  The  Youngest  in  the  Fam- 
ily 

51.  College  Girls'  Clothes 

52.  How  to  write  a  Theme 

53.  Getting  back  Home 

54.  My  Bank  Account 

55.  A  Singing-Lesson 

56.  The    College  Student  and 
the  Cigarette 

57.  Football  and  the  Faculty 

58.  The    College   Student   and 
Religion 

59.  Honesty  among  Students 

60.  The  College  Comic  Paper 

61.  The  Humor  of  College  Stu- 
dents 

62.  The  Question  of  Hazing 

63.  Mass  Meetings 

64.  The  Helpless  Student 

65.  Lantern  Lectures 

66.  How  to  Prepare  for  Exam- 
inations 

67.  Clubs  in  my  Home  Town 

68.  Small  Boys  on  the  Street 

69.  Sunday  Morning 

70.  A  Short  Vacation  at  Home 

71.  The  Lunch  Room  at  School 

72.  When  I  was  in  a  Hurry 

73.  The  Zoological  Garden 

74.  The  Moving  Picture  Show 

75.  Shop  Windows 

76.  Our  Class  Play 

77.  Keeping  a  Diary 


78.  An  Indian  Village 

79.  Street  Vendors 

80.  The  Chinese  in  our  Town 

81.  Children  on  the  Stage 

82.  Magazine  Advertisements 

83.  The  Suffragette 

84.  Noon  Hour  in  the  Street 

85.  Culture  among  College  Stu- 
dents 

86.  The  Follies  of  the  Kodak 
Fiend 

87.  Clothes  and  their  Owners 

88.  College  Students'  Rooms 

89.  Why  Study  the  Classics? 

90.  How  to  cast  a  Vote 

91.  Commuting 

92.  Class  Yells 

93.  College  Slang 

94.  Commencement  at  the  High 
School 

95.  What  People  read  and  eat  in 
the  Train 

96.  What  the  Country  Schools 
need 

97.  The  Marking  System  in  our 
College 

98.  The  Value  of  a  College  De- 
gree 

99.  The  Football  Hero 

100.  Boarding-House  Manners 

101.  Spring  on  the  Campus 

102.  Spring  in  the  Classroom 

103.  Tutors 

104.  On  the  Crew 

105.  Being  a  "Fan" 

106.  College  Love  Affairs 

107.  Student  Pastors 

108.  The  College  Girl  at  Home 

109.  Small  Economies 

110.  Christmas  Presents 

111.  How  to  Pack  a  Trunk 

112.  How  I  ran  away  from  Home 

113.  Boys'  Gangs 

114.  The    Theater    in    a    Small 
Town 


SHORT-THEME  SUBJECTS 


205 


115.  The  Old-Clothes  Man 

116.  A  Cheese  Factory 

117.  The  Farmer  and  the  Auto- 
mobile 

118.  Why  I  like  Moving  Pictures 

119.  The  Village  Constable 

120.  The  Popular  College  Man 

121.  Boarding-House  Talk 

122.  What  College  Students  eat 

123.  The  Campus 

124.  Policemen 

125.  The  Pedestrian  and  the  Au- 
tomobile 

126.  Getting  up  Early 

127.  The  Workingman's  Day 

128.  The  Non-Fraternity  Man 

129.  Borrowing  Clothes 

130.  Shopping  for  Christmas 

131.  Lending  Books 

132.  The  Fraternity  Dog 

133.  The  Back- Yard  Cat 

134.  How  to  save  Time 

135.  An  Adventure  in  a  Motor- 
boat 

136.  Window  Curtains 

137.  On  Keeping  Boarders 

138.  Making  a  Garden 

139.  How  I  improved  our  Yard 

140.  Caught  in  the  Rain 

141.  How  I  spend  my  Money 

142.  The  Bakery  Shop 

143 .  How  a  Girl  may  earn  M  oney 

144.  Keeping  House  for.Father 

145.  A  Large  Department  Store 

146.  Street  Noises 

147.  Afraid  of  the  Dark 

148.  How  to  make  a  Camp  Fire 

149.  Why  I  like  my  Home  Town 

150.  Our  High  School  Literary 
Society 

151.  My  best  Friend 

152.  On  the  Character  of  News- 
boys 

153.  The  Saturday  Evening  Post 
Boy 


154.  Locked  out 

155.  An  Experience  in  Business 

156.  Learning  to  take  Notes 

157.  In  the  Kindergarten 
15S.  A  Child's  Playhouse 

159.  Raising  Pigeons 

160.  Keeping  Rabbits 

161 .  How  to  study  a  Foreign  Lan- 
guage 

162.  My    High    School    English 
Course 

163.  Sunday  Night  at  Home 

164.  The  Corner  Grocery 

165.  The  College  Failure 

166.  Required  Reading 

167.  Cramming 

168.  Hunting  a  Room 

169.  The  Post-Graduate 

170.  Collectors 

171.  The  Lunch  Wagon 

172.  The  Corner  Drug  Store 

173.  Having    a    Group   Picture 
taken 

174.  Women  in  College  Politics 

175.  The  Waitress 

176.  The  Dairy  Lunch 

177.  Registration  Day 

178.  Excuses 

179.  Money  from  Home 

180.  The  Sunday  Newspaper 

181.  A  Flower  Shop 

182.  Popular  Novels 

183.  The  Thermos  Bottle 

184.  Keeping  House  Systemati- 
cally 

185.  Second-Hand  Books 

186.  The  Tardy  Student 

187.  A  Science  Note-Book 

188.  In  the  Laboratory 

189.  Children  in  the  Park 

190.  A  Little-Known  Corner  of 
our  College 

191.  What  the  College  Student 
learns  Outside  of  Class 

192.  Costumes  on  the  Campus 


206 


WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 


193.  Following  the  Fashions 

194.  Keeping  a  Tea-Room 

195.  Women  Reporters 

196.  The  Dean  of  Women 

197.  Fudge  Parties 

198.  Our  Fancy-Dress  Party 

199.  Household  Magazines 

200.  The  Beauty  Column 

201.  A  Beauty  Parlor 

202.  Trousseaux 

203.  Giving  a  Bridge  Party 


204.  The  Sewing  Room 

205.  Bargains 

206.  Being  an  Aunt 

207.  Women  Lobbyists  in  College 
Politics 

208.  Woman's  Sphere 

209.  The  Anti-Suffragist 

210.  The  Complete  Hostess 

211.  Rules  in  a  Women's  Dormi- 
tory 


6.   LONG-THEME   SUBJECTS 


1.  My  Home  Town 

2.  Secret  Societies  in  the  High 
School 

3.  My  Musical  Education 

4.  How    our    College  reaches 
the  People 

5.  The  Country  Store  as  a  So- 
cial Center 

6.  College  Publications 

7.  Earning  One's  Way  through 
College 

8.  The  Honor  System 

9.  The  College  Student  and  the 
Theater 

10.  How  my  Home  Town  could 
be  improved 

11.  The  Liquor  Situation  in  my 
Home  Town 

12.  My  Business  Experience 

13.  Our  Athletic  Situation 

14.  Teaching     in     a     Country 
School 

15.  How  a  Large  Business  Enter- 
prise is  managed 

16.  The  Mail  Order  Business 

17.  Girls'  Literary  Societies 

18.  Managing  a  Boys'  Camp 

19.  Are  our  High  Schools  Suc- 
cessful? 

20.  How  my  Education  has  so 
far  failed 


21.  Our  College  and  the  Fresh- 
man 

22.  Public  Lectures  in  our  Town 

23.  The  Modern  Sunday  School 

24.  How  to  get  the  Most  out  of  a 
Week  in  Camp 

25.  How  to  set  up  a  Camp 

26.  The     Freshman     and     the 
Upper    Classman 

27.  The  Differences  between  a 
High  School  and  a  College 

28.  The   Difference   between   a 
Public  and  a  Private  School 

29.  Country  Roads 

30.  Religious  Societies  in  Col- 
lege 

31.  College  Politics 

32.  The  College  in  a  Large  City 

33.  College  Dramatics 

34.  Social  Life  in  College 

35.  What  a  Church  can  do  for 
its  Young  People 

36.  Votes  for  Women 

37.  The  College  Graduate  and 
the  Town  he  Lives  in 

38.  Foreign  Students  in  Ameri- 
can Colleges 

39.  What  the  Country  School- 
house  can  do 

40.  Is  the  Adviser  System  Satis- 
factory? 


LONG-THEME  SUBJECTS 


207 


41.  The  Y.M.C.A.   in   College 
Life 

42.  My  Vocation  in  Life 

43.  When  I  was  a  Small  Boy 

44.  What  a  College  Newspaper 
ought  to  be 

45.  The  Boy  Scouts 

46.  Training  for  a  Track  Team 

47.  The  Insurance  Business 

48.  Irrigation  Systems 

49.  The   Conservation   of   For- 
ests 

50.  A  Truck  Garden 

51.  Developing   an   Apple   Or- 
chard 

52.  A  Horse  Ranch 

53.  Systematic  House-Cleaning 

54.  The  Housekeeper's  Week 

55.  The  High  Cost  of  Living 

56.  Democracy  among  College 
Girls 

57.  M  anaging  a  Boarding-House 

58.  A  Model  Kitchen 

59.  American  Styles  for  Ameri- 
can Women 

60.  Interior  Decorations  for  a 
Cottage 

61.  The  Immigrant  Woman  in 
our  Town 

62.  Continuation     Schools     for 
Girls 

63.  The  Problem  of  Domestic 
Help 

64.  A  Westerner  in  the  East 

65.  An  Easterner  in  the  West 

66.  Social    Life    in    my    Home 
Town 

67.  A  Library  Training  Course 

68.  Fresh  Air  Work  in  a  Large 
City 

69.  Settlement  Houses 

70.  Reformatories    for    Young 
People 

'1.  The    Commission  Form    of 
Government 


72.  An   Account   of   a   Recent 
Strike 

73.  The  Saloon  in  Politics 

74.  The     United     States     and 
Mexico 

75.  The  Weather  Bureau 

76.  Pure  Food 

77.  Postal  Savings  Banks 

78.  The  Parcel  Post 

79.  Aviation  Tournaments 

80.  The  George  Junior  Repub- 
lic 

81.  Colonial  Costume 

82.  English    Costume    in     the 
Eighteenth  Century 

83.  Some  Old-Fashion  Plates 

84.  Abandoned  Farms 

85.  Poor-Houses 

86.  Electricity  in  the  Household 

87.  Women's  Hats  I 

88.  A  Recent  Art  Exhibit 

89.  Modern  American  Art 

90.  Portrait  Painters  of  Amer- 
ica 

91.  Recent  Political  Caricatures 

92.  The  Influence  of  Caricature 
on  Public  Opinion 

93.  Architecture  in  my  Home 
Town 

94.  Hand  Work  in  the  Public 
Schools 

95.  Dyeing  and  Weaving 

96.  Hand-Made  Jewelry 

97.  Costume  Design 

98.  Spelling  Reform 

99.  Some  Examples  of  Modern 
Realism 

100.  Poe's  Influence  on  the  Short 
Story 

101.  The  Dialect  Story 

102.  The  Middle  West  in  Fiction 

103.  George     Meredith's     Short 
Stories 

104.  Short    Stories    in    Current 
Magazines 


208  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 


105.  Early  American  Magazines 

106.  Godey's  Lady's  Book 

107.  Recent  Historical  Novels 

108.  "The  Great  American  No- 
vel" 

109.  Poetry  in  the  Current  Maga- 
zines 


110.  Literary  Magazines  of  the 
Present  Day 

111.  Children's  Magazines 

112.  Recent  Local  Color  Stories 

113.  A  New  English  Novel 

114.  Conventional  Stage  Charac- 
ters 


REFERENCES 

Brown  and  Barnes.   The  Art  of  Writing  English,  pp.  329  and  371. 
Espenshade,  A.  H.  Essentials  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  p.  43. 
Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold.    Manual  of  Composition  and 

Rhetoric,  p.  421. 
Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Composition,  p.  8. 
Herrick  and  Damon.   New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools, 

pp.  42-46;  52;  440;  455. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.   Rhetoric  and  the  Study  of  Literature,  pp.  346- 

56. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.    Theme-Book  in  English  Composition. 
Nesfield,  J.  C.  Senior  Course  of  English  Composition.  Subjects  with 

notes,  pp.  205-322;  without  notes,  pp.  323-56. 
Newcomer  and  Seward.   Rhetoric  in  Practice,  p.  252. 
Scott  and  Denney.   Paragraph  Writing,  pp.  213-44. 
Shaw,  E.  R.  English  Composition  by  Practice,  pp.  149-52. 
Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  361-63;  394. 


7.   HOW  TO   TAKE   NOTES 

The  two  most  necessary  qualities  in  note-taking,  as  far 
as  form  is  concerned,  are:  — 

1.  System.  If  you  have  devised  a  practical  and  satisfac- 
tory system,  do  not  change  it  without  good  reason. 
Others  may  use  different  methods,  but  if  yours  serves 
your  purpose,  do  not  discard  it.  Do  not  make  the  mis- 
take of  becoming  a  slave  to  system.  System  is  only  a 
means  for  securing  economy  and  efficiency. 

2.  Neatness.  Notes  should  always  be  neatly  made  and 
arranged.  They  should  not  be  crowded  together  and 
illegible. 


HOW  TO  TAKE  NOTES  209 

Notes  may  be  preserved  in  the  following  ways :  — 

1.  The  loose-leaf  notebook  with  pages  8x10?  or  8|xll,  and 
opening  at  the  side  like  an  ordinary  book,  is  the  most 
convenient  kind.  It  permits  of  expansion,  rearrange- 
ment, and  transfer  of  notes  if  necessary.  It  is  practical 
to  use,  as  it  opens  flat,  and  allows  the  easy  removal  of 
pages.  It  is  the  only  kind  of  book  that  can  be  kept  up 
to  date  and  added  to  without  requiring  the  reader  to 
look  in  several  places. 

2.  The  bound  notebook  is  useful  when  it  is  desirable  to 
preserve  notes  and  records  which  will  not  be  changed 
or  added  to.  Only  one  subject  should  be  put  into 
each  notebook.  When  a  loose-leaf  notebook  is  com- 
pleted so  that  no  further  additions  will  be  made, 
the  sheets  can  be  conveniently  and  cheaply  bound  in 
book  form. 

3.  Some  writers  prefer  to  take  notes  upon  cards  or  slips 
of  paper  4x6  or  5x8,  and  to  file  these  in  drawers  or 
boxes.  This  method  is  a  modification  of  the  loose- 
leaf  notebook  and  generally  has  proved  less  con- 
venient. 

4.  When  notes  are  taken  on  odd  sheets  of  paper,  or  when 
the  ultimate  value  of  notes  or  clippings  cannot  be 
determined  and  it  seems  desirable  to  preserve  them 
without  loss  of  time,  they  may  be  placed  in  manila 
envelopes  or  folders,  which  are  then  filed  according  to 
subject.  Useless  matter  should  be  removed  at  regular 
intervals  from  a  file  of  this  kind. 

There  are  two  general  classes  of  notes :  — 
I.   Notes  which  are  taken  at  lectures  or  in  the  classroom 

and  which  are  intended  as  a  record,  and  for  future 

study  or  reference. 
II.   Notes  which  are  taken  preliminary  to  writing,  and 


210  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

which,  when  organized,  will  form  the  basis  for  writ- 
ing a  theme,  article,  lecture,  or  book. 

I.   Lecture  notes 

1.  An  exact  and  complete  verbatim  report  of  the 
lectures  is  in  most  cases  neither  desirable  nor 
feasible  for  the  average  student.  The  usual 
method  of  classroom  instruction  and  the  use  of 
textbooks,  syllabi,  etc.,  render  elaborate  notes 
unnecessary.  The  student  will  find  that  his  mind 
receives  valuable  training  if  he  learns  to  ab- 
stract and  condense  the  chief  ideas  in  a  lecture 
and  to  express  them  in  his  own  words.  It  is 
generally  advisable  to  quote  exactly  only  the 
most  important  points. 

2.  The  student  should  simplify  his  note-taking  by 
the  use  of  a  few  definite  abbreviations.  For  ex- 
ample, the  final  letters  may  be  omitted  from 
long  words:  investig.,  for  investigation;  signs 
such  asv'or  0  may  be  used  for  "the";  w.  may 
stand  for  "with."  In  rapid  note-taking  abbre- 
viations are  essential.  The  student  will  find 
shorthand  useful,  but  not  essential,  in  college 
work.  A  knowledge  of  typewriting  is  becoming 
more  and  more  necessary.  If  shorthand  is  used, 
the  notes  should  be  written  out  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. 

3.  Lectures,  in  general,  provide  the  student  with 
either  (a)  a  number  of  historical  or  scientific 
facts,  definitely  related,  or  (6)  the  explanation  of 
an  idea,  conception,  process,  etc.  In  both  cases 
there  is  a  definite  plan  or  outline  in  the  mind  of 
the  lecturer,  and  in  this  plan  the  details  are 
arranged  in  a  coherent  manner;  on  the  basis  of 


HOW  TO  TAKE   NOTES  211 

this  plan,  the  lecturer  in  speaking  states  facts, 
explains  ideas,  elaborates,  emphasizes,  indicates 
relations,  draws  conclusions,  and  makes  sugges- 
tions. In  his  notes  the  student  should  enter:  — 
(a)  A  general  outline  giving  the  most  important 
points  of  the  topic  discussed  and  showing 
that  the  student  has  grasped  the  trend  of 
the  lecture.  Sometimes  an  outline  placed  on 
the  blackboard  materially  assists  the  stu- 
dent in  this  process.    The  student  should 
watch   carefully   for   any  indication  of  a 
transition  to  a  new  topic. 
(6)  Any  fact,  idea,  or  suggestion  that  has  im- 
pressed the  student  on  account  of  its  unf  amil- 
iarity,  difficulty  special  interest,  or  sugges- 
tiveness. 

4.  Cultivate  the  habit  of  continuous  attention  and 
of  concentration.  Allow  neither  your  surround- 
ings nor  your  own  thoughts  to  distract  your 
mind  from  your  subject.  Be  careful  not  to  let 
your  attention  wander  or  flag  toward  the  end  of 
the  lecture  even  if  the  subject  is  uninteresting. 
The  habit  of  concentration  is  itself  often  more 
valuable  than  the  facts  under  consideration. 

5.  Learn  to  listen  before  you  write.  Avoid  espe- 
cially the  habit  of  jotting  down  the  first  words 
which  the  speaker  uses  in  discussing  any  point. 
Listen  until  you  can  sum  up  in  a  heading  or  a 
brief  sentence  what  he  has  said.  Beginners  fre- 
quently find  it  difficult  to  write  one  thing  and 
listen  to  another  at  the  same  time. 

6.  Watch  carefully  for  any  indications  of  outline, 
plan,  progress,  sequence  of  ideas,  and  transi- 
tions.  These  will  help  you  in  the  arrangement 


212  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

and  numbering  of  headings.  If  you  unexpect- 
edly find  that  you  have  made  a  wrong  coordina- 
tion or  subordination  of  headings  in  your  out- 
line, indicate  rapidly  by  numbers  their  proper 
relation,  but  be  careful  at  the  same  time  not  to 
lose  the  thread  of  the  lecture.  If  you  do  not 
understand  what  is  being  said,  do  not  hesitate 
to  ask  questions.  If  you  have  not  heard  dis- 
tinctly, ask  to  have  a  sentence  repeated. 

7.  If  your  notes  are  not  readily  legible  or  if  they 
are  poorly  arranged,  copy  them.  Notebooks 
which  are  to  be  examined  by  the  instructor  and 
for  which  credit  is  given  should  if  possible  be 
typewritten. 

8.  Learn  to  depend  upon  yourself  and  not  upon 
your  neighbors  for  the  notes  that  you  take.  If, 
however,  you  miss  a  lecture,  get  the  material 
(where  this  is  not  contrary  to  special  regulations) 
from  the  notes  of  another  student  before  the 
class  meets  again.' 

9.  If  you  use  a  loose-leaf  notebook  for  the  notes  on 
different  courses,  always  file  together  and  con- 
secutively the  notes  on  each  separate  subject. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  place  in  the  upper  left-hand 
corner  of  the  page  the  name  of  the  course,  the 
instructor's  name,  and  the  date.  With  this  in- 
formation, you  can  remove  and  replace  notes 
without  any  danger  of  misplacing  them. 

10.  If  you  have  time,  you  will  find  rewriting  the  lec- 
tures in  full  from  the  notes  an  excellent  means  of 
training  in  writing  and  of  fixing  a  subject 
definitely  in  your  mind.  This  method  should  be 
used  at  least  for  those  parts  of  a  subject  which 
are  difficult  to  understand  or  remember,  or  in 


HOW  TO  TAKE  NOTES  213 

cases  where  mere  headings  will  be  meaningless 
after  a  lapse  of  time.  Another  plan  is  to  review 
your  notes  once  a  week,  underlining  with  red  ink 
important  words,  and  putting  brief  headings  in 
the  margin. 

11.  Leave  sufficient  space  in  your  notes  for  quota- 
tions or  extracts,  abstracts  of  reading,  and  addi- 
tional references. 

12.  If  you  expect  to  have  occasion  to  refer  fre- 
quently to  your  notes,  make  a  table  of  contents 
or  an  alphabetic  subject  index  of  the  chief  topics. 

II.  Notes  preliminary  to  writing 

1.  Before  writing  on  a  subject  the  student  should 
make  notes  if  — 

(a)  The  subject  is  extensive  or  complicated. 

(b)  Accuracy  of  statement  and  definiteness  of 
reference  are  necessary. 

(c)  The  time  of  preparation  is  interrupted  or 
extended  over  a  long  period. 

(d)  The  writer  is  cooperating  with  others  on  a 
report,  etc. 

2.  Notes  should  not  be  taken  in  bound  notebooks, 
but  upon  cards  or  slips  or  sheets  of  paper  of  uni- 
form size.  Only  one  note,  idea,  reference,  or 
quotation  should  be  put  upon  one  card  or  sheet. 
Place  at  the  top  a  brief  indication  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  sheet,  or  a  heading  indicating  its 
place  in  your  treatment  of  the  subject.  If  this 
material  covers  more  than  one  card  or  slip,  fasten 
the  papers  together  with  a  clip.  These  details 
are  essential  to  the  proper  arrangement  and  con- 
venient use  of  the  notes. 

3.  It  is  well,  even  in  the  case  of  very  brief  notes,  to 
write  at  the  bottom  or  on  the  back  of  the  sheet 


214  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

a  reference  to  the  volume  and  page  where  you 
got  your  information.  Possible  future  reference 
or  the  necessity  for  verification  makes  this 
advisable.  Such  reference  is  necessary  in  the 
case  of  quotation,  and  should  include  author, 
title,  place  and  date  of  publication,  edition, 
volume,  and  inclusive  paging.  (See  Notes  on 
Quotations,  pages  215-21.) 

4.  When  you  have  completed  the  process  of  taking 
notes,  or  as  soon  as  you  feel  the  necessity  for 
some  organization  of  your  material,  begin  the 
process  of  arranging  your  notes.  Arrange  them 
in  rows  on  a  table,  putting  in  the  same  pile  all 
notes  that  deal  with  the  same  topic,  and  fasten 
each  pile  with  a  paper  clip. 

5.  Begin  to  arrange  the  topics,  shifting  them  about 
until  you  get  them  into  a  satisfactory  order.  If 
you  have  already  made  an  outline  of  your  sub- 
ject, this  process  will  take  only  a  few  moments; 
if  you  have  not  made  an  outline,  this  process  of 
arrangement  will  result  in  one. 

6.  If  you  have  many  notes,  you  will  find  some  to  be 
duplicates  and  some  to  be  unnecessary.  Do  not 
throw  these  away,  but  preserve  them  separately 
in  relative  order.  They  may  prove  useful  before 
you  have  finished  writing. 

7.  When  you  have  finished  your  work,  file  your 
notes  in  order  and  keep  them  until  what  you 
have  written  has  been  criticzied  by  your 
instructor. 

REFERENCES 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Composition  Oral  and  Written,  pp.  163-72. 
Brewster,  W.  T.   English  Composition  and  Style,  pp.  30-37. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.   Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  263-68. 
Seward,  S.  S.  Note-taking. 


QUOTATIONS  215 

8.   QUOTATIONS 

1.  Extracts  from  writers  should  be  quoted  exactly.  Do 
not  trust  to  your  memory.  Find  the  quotation  that  you 
wish  to  use  and  copy  it  carefully.  Make  a  note  of  the 
volume  and  the  page  of  the  work  in  which  the  quotation  is 
to  be  found. 

2.  Use  double  quotation  marks  ("  ....")  before  the 
first  and  after  the  last  word  of  the  quotation.  Use  single 
quotation  marks  ('....')  for  a  quotation  that  occurs 
within  a  quotation. 

For  fame,  Meredith  had,  as  those  of  his  calibre  always  have 
had,  to  wait.  But  "If,"  as  Mr.  Trevelyan  adroitly 
remarks,  "the  gods  showed  their  love  for  Shelley  by 
causing  him  to  die  young,  they  have  shown  their  love  for 
Mr.  Meredith  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner,  by  leaving 
him  to  receive  from  us  in  old  age  the  homage  that  was 
due  to  him  from  our  grandfathers," x  and  for  thirty  years 
at  least  fame  has  now  been  his  portion.  May  Sturge 
Henderson:  George  Meredith. 

In  a  letter  of  March,  1843,  Mrs.  Carlyle  remarked  of 
humorous  stories,  "All  the  books  that  pretend  to  amuse 
in  our  day  come,  in  fact,  either  under  that  category 
which  you  except  against,  'the  extravagant  clown-jesting 
sort,'  or  still  worse,  under  that  of  what  I  should  call  the 
galvanized-death's-head-grinning  sort.  There  seems  to 
be  no  longer  any  genuine,  heart-felt  mirth  in  writers  of 
books."  H.  S.  Canby:  The  Short  Story  in  English. 

3.  If  for  any  reason  you  insert  a  word  or  words  of  ex- 
planation or  comment  in  the  quotation,  use  square  brackets 
[     ]  to  inclose  such  interpolated  material. 

Several  letters  of  Senor  Morla  Vicuna  bear  out  the  fore- 
going account  of  the  matter.  In  one  may  be  read :  "  I  pro- 
pose to  call  on  you  to-morrow  or  the  day  after.  The 
group  of  Admiral  Lynch  is  very  successful,  and  I  am 
proud  and  pleased  to  be  the  sole  possessor  of  it.  [Probably 

1  G.  M.  Trevelyan,  The  Poetry  and  Philosophy  of  George  Meredith. 


216  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

this  was  a  small  copy  which  he  was  to  keep  for  himself.] 
I  will  send  you  a  packer  for  the  Vicuna  Mackenna  monu- 
ment." Frederick  Lawton:  Life  of  Auguste  Rodin. 

4.  If  you  desire  to  draw  attention  to  any  particular  word 
or  to  emphasize  it,  use  italics  and  make  a  note  to  say  that 
the  italics  are  your  own.  In  manuscript  underline  the 
words  that  you  wish  italicized. 

Mr.  Asquith,  it  may  be,  hesitates  at  the  name  of  Home 
Rule.  Let  Unionists,  if  they  doubt  what  the  Premier 
means,  weigh  the  terms  —  and  especially  the  words  we 
have  italicized  —  in  which  his  proposal  is  accepted  by 
Mr.  Redmond:  "We  are  now  in  the  midst  of  one  of  the 
greatest  constitutional  struggles  that  have  arisen  in  the 
history  of  the  British  Empire  for  over  two  hundred  y*ars, 
and  what  concerns  us  here  more  nearly  we  have  before  us 
to-day  the  best  chance  which  Ireland  has  ever  had  for  the  last 
century  of  tearing  up  and  trampling  under  foot  that  infam- 
ous Act  of  Union  which  has  made  our  country  impover- 
ished, depopulated,  and  unhappy.  I  rejoice  with  all  my 
heart  that  this  great  meeting  ...  of  the  citizens  of  the 
capital  of  Ireland  proves  that  they  are  awake  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  issues  that  are  at  stake."  The  Quarterly 
Review,  January,  1910,  vol.  212,  p.  284. 

5.  If  you  omit  words  or  sentences  from  the  passage  that 
you  are  quoting,  use  dots  (...)  or  stars (  *  *  *  )  to 
indicate  the  omission. 

I  gather  some  of  these  particulars  from  a  copy  of  a  letter,  ap- 
parently in  reply  to  one  from  Wordsworth,  to  whom  she 
had  sent  the  commencement  of  the  story,  sometime  in  the 
summer  of  1840:  "...  No  doubt  if  I  had  gone  on,  I 
should  have  made  quite  a  Richardsonian  concern  of  it. 
.  .  .  I  had  materials  in  my  head  for  half-a-dozen  volumes." 
Mrs.  Gaskell:  Life  of  Charlotte  Bronte. 

6.  Be  careful  to  give  the  source  of  your  quotation,  in  the 
words  introducing  or  following  it,  or  in  a  footnote.  The 
author  and  the  title  should  be  given,  and,  in  exact  work, 


QUOTATIONS  217 

place,  date,  edition,  volume  (if  there  are  more  than  one), 
and  inclusive  paging. 

7.  An  indirect  quotation  does  not  require  quotation 
marks,  since  only  the  substance,  not  the  exact  wording  of 
the  text,  is  given.  Acknowledgment  of  or  reference  to  the 
source  should  invariably  be  made. 

8.  The  use  of  another's  ideas  or  words  without  due 
acknowledgment  is  known  as  plagiarism ;  it  is  commonly 
regarded  as  a  literary  theft  —  as  inexcusable  as  any  other 
kind  of  dishonesty.  The  student  should  cultivate  the  habit 
of  scrupulous  exactness  in  the  matter  of  literary  indebted- 
ness. Plagiarism,  however,  must  not  be  confused  with  the 
rare  coincidence  which  occurs  when  two  writers  happen 
independently  to  express  the  same  idea  in  a  somewhat 
similar  way;  and  the  term  plagiarism  should  not  be 
extended  to  include  the  use  of  phrases  and  set  expressions 
common  in  current  speech. 

9.  Unless  for  specific  purposes  of  proof  or  illustration, 
frequent  or  extended  quotation  should  be  avoided.  The 
overloading  or  padding  of  themes  with  quotations  should 
be  neither  practiced  nor  tolerated.  Do  not  use  another's 
words  when  you  can  express  the  same  idea  clearly  yourself. 
Ready  recourse  to  quotation  is  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles 
to  precision,  rapidity,  and  felicity  of  expression. 

10.  The  lavish  and  indiscriminate  use  of  quotations, 
especially  from  poetry,  as  a  literary  ornament,  is  not  to  be 
commended.  Emphasis  and  good  effect,  however,  may  be 
gained  from  the  occasional  use  of  an  unexpected,  novel,  or 
particularly  appropriate  allusion  or  quotation. 

11.  Be  careful  to  avoid,  on  the  one  hand,  hackneyed 
quotations,  trite  references,  and  overworked  allusions,  and, 


218  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

on  the  other  hand,  vague,  recondite,  or  far-fetched  quota- 
tions or  allusions. 

12.  For  the  use  of  quotation  marks  in  conversation,  see 
page  19. 

13.  A  quotation  from  a  poem  should  follow  the  exact 
arrangement  of  lines  that  is  shown  in  an  authorized  version 
of  the  original. 

14.  When  a  quotation  from  a  poem  is  to  be  inserted  in  a 
prose  discourse,  it  should  begin  on  a  line  by  itself.  The 
prose  following  it  should  begin  on  the  line  below  the  last 
line  of  the  poetry. 

Yet,  if  the  world  we  live  in  be  indeed  bounded 

by  the  high 
Uno'erleaped  mountains  of  necessity, 

the  rule  to  which  we  are  subjected  is  no  iron  despot's 
rule.  May  Sturge  Henderson  :  George  Meredith. 

15.  If  a  line  of  poetry  must,  on  account  of  its  length,  be 
carried  over  to  a  second  line,  the  part  carried  over  should 
be  indented. 

But  first  I  go.  —  They  '11  not  mind  Cheat-the- 

Devil! 
They  '11  creep,  to  find  out  where  the  Rainbow 

went. 

Josephine  Preston  Peabody:  The  Piper. 

16.  A  quotation  of  verse  should,  in  general,  have  quota- 
tion marks  only  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end.  Fre- 
quently quotation  marks  are  omitted  unless  the  lines  of 
poetry  are  included  in  the  speech  of  some  character  who 
figures  in  the  prose  discourse. 

The  student  of  foreign  languages  may  note  that  in  French 
and  German  it  is  customary  to  use  the  quotation  mark  (usually 
single)  at  the  beginning  of  each  line. 


REFERENCES  AND  FOOTNOTES  219 

9.  REFERENCES   AND   FOOTNOTES 

1.  Whenever  you  are  immediately  dependent  upon 
another  writer  for  your  material  or  your  language,  that 
fact  should  be  indicated  either  by  a  reference  in  the  text  or 
by  a  footnote. 

2.  Acknowledgment  in  the  text  may  be  made  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

"To  this  text  my  attention  was  first  called  by  the  article  of 
Monsieur  A.  Gastou6,  Un  petit  drame  liturgique  parisien 
pour  Paques,  in  the  course  of  which  he  writes,  — 
'En  dehors  des  coutumes "n 

1  Karl  Young:  Some  Texts  of  Liturgical  Plays.  In  the  Publications  of 
the  Modern  Language  Association  of  America,  XXIV, 
2,  p.  294. 

Note.  In  manuscript  that  has  to  be  printed  it  is  advisable 
to  rule  a  line  across  the  page  immediately  below  a  fine  of  text 
containing  a  reference,  to  write  the  reference  or  footnote  be- 
low this  ruled  line,  to  follow  it  with  another  line,  and  then  to 
continue  with  the  text.  This  method  facilitates  the  work  of 
the  printer  and  of  the  proof-reader. 

3.  If  there  is  only  one  note  to  a  page,  or  if  the  references 
are  rare,  a  star  (*)  is  sufficient  to  draw  the  reader's  atten- 
tion to  the  foot  of  the  page.  The  star  is  placed  immediately 
after  the  important  word  in  the  text  and  immediately 
before  the  footnote  at  the  bottom  of  the  printed  page.  , 

4.  Where  there  are  numerous  footnote  references  or 
quotations,  either  of  two  plans  may  be  followed :  — 

(a)  Number  the  notes  consecutively  in  the  text,  page 
after  page,  and  place  all  the  references  and  quota- 
tions, correspondingly  numbered  and  consecu- 
tively arranged,  in  an  appendix.  This  method  is 
sometimes  used  in  the  case  of  unimportant,  very 
technical,  or  long  references,  where  it  is  unde- 


220  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

sirable  to  distract  the  reader's  attention  or  where 
the  proportions  of  the  page  would  be  spoiled. 
(6)  Indicate  the  note  on  every  separate  page  either  by 
small  superior  figures  (:  2  3  4  etc.)  or  by  the 
signs  *  f  t  §  placed  after  the  important  word  or  at 
the  end  of  the  reference  or  quotation.  The  figures 
are  preferable  because  they  are  more  familiar  and 
allow  greater  range;  modern  practice  in  printing 
calls  almost  exclusively  for  their  use  even  when 
there  is  but  a  single  note  to  the  page. 

Examples  of  these  two  methods  may  easily  be  found 
in  the  student's  textbooks. 

5«  Where  it  is  desirable  to  make  a  reference  for  the  sake 
of  illustration  or  comparison,  but  not  as  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  indebtedness,  the  abbreviation  Cp.  or  Cf.  (Lat., 
confer,  "compare")  is  used  in  the  footnote  after  the  note 
number. 

e.g.,  3  Cf.  Psalm  xxni,  2. 

6.  Where  the  reference  extends  over  several  pages  some- 
times only  the  first  is  mentioned,  followed  by  the  abbrevia- 
tion et  seq.  (Lat.,  et  sequentes  or  et  sequentia)  or/,  (follow- 
ing). 

e.g.,  3  William  James:  The  Will  to  Believe.   N.Y.,  p.  184 
et  seq. 

7.  In  the  case  of  quotations  from  foreign  languages,  it  is 
generally  advisable  to  give  an  exact  translation  in  a  foot- 
note. If  a  free  rendering  is  given  in  the  text,  quote  the  exact 
foreign  words  in  the  footnote.  In  either  case,  reference 
should  be  made  to  author  and  work  cited. 

8.  Where  an  uninterrupted  series  of  references  has  to  be 
made  to  the  same  book,  full  reference  is  made  only  the  first 
time,  and  the  abbreviation  op.  cit.  (Lat.,  opere  citato,  in  the 


MAKING  A  BIBLIOGRAPHY  221 

work  cited)  is  used  in  the  subsequent  references,  the  num- 
ber of  the  page  being  altered  when  necessary. 

9.  It  should  be  remembered  that  when  the  series  is 
interrupted,  the  full  reference  must  again  be  given.  Op.  cit. 
always  refers  to  the  last  work  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
footnotes. 

10.  When  a  second  reference  has  to  be  made  to  the  same 
page  of  work  already  mentioned,  the  abbreviation  loc.  cit. 
(Lat.,  loco  citato,  the  place  cited)  is  used  to  refer  the  reader 
to  the  same  place. 

10.  MAKING  A  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1 .  Bibliographical  entries  should  always  give  the  follow- 
ing information :  — 

1.  Author's  name,  with  initials. 

2.  Exact  title  of  book. 

3.  Place  of  publication. 

4.  Date  of  publication. 

5.  Number  of  edition,  if  known. 

2.  Bibliographical  entries  may  be  arranged  in  two 
ways :  — 

1.  By  authors,  alphabetically. 

2.  By  subjects  alphabetically,  with  the  authors  ar- 
ranged alphabetically  under  each  topic  heading. 

Examples  of  these  methods  of  arrangement  may  be 
found  in  The  United  States  Catalogue  of  Books  in  Print. 
Further  suggestions  and  examples  may  be  found  in  Chan- 
ning,  E.,  Hart,  A.  B.,  and  Turner,  F.  J.:  Guide  to  the  Study 
and  Reading  of  American  History.    Rev.  ed.,  Boston,  1912. 

3.  When  the  student  has  to  make  an  extensive  list  of 
references  or  a  bibliography  of  any  sort,  he  will  find  that 
much  time  is  saved  if  he  uses  one  index  card  for  each 
separate  book  of  reference.    He  can  then  eliminate  any 


222  WRITTEN  COMPOSITION 

entries  that  are  not  necessary;  a  bibliography  should 
never  be  left  unarranged.  Entries  should  be  placed  in 
alphabetical  order,  or  according  to  date  of  publication  or 
some  convenient  subject  classification.  The  entries  should 
then  be  copied  and  the  cards  filed  for  reference.  In  a  simple 
or  small  bibliography,  entries  by  author  will  usually  prove 
sufficient.  If  the  subject  has  many  aspects  or  the  bibliog- 
raphy is  extensive,  the  subject  entry  will  prove  more  con- 
venient, the  topic  or  subheading  of  the  whole  subject  being 
indicated  upon  the  first  line  of  the  card.  This  classification 
should  usually  be  made  after  all  the  entries  have  been 
examined. 

4.  In  making  a  bibliography  the  following  aids  will  be 
found  useful :  — 

1.  The  entries  on  subject  cards  in  a  library  catalogue. 

2.  The  information  obtained  from  following  up  "see 
also"  references. 

3.  Any  special  bibliographies  that  may  be  already 
published.  These  may  be  found  from  the  cata- 
logue or  from  lists  of  bibliographies  published  in  the 
American  Library  Annual. 

4.  The  lists  appended  to  many  articles  in  the  ency- 
clopaedias. 

5.  The  bibliographies  and  footnote  references  in 
books  on  the  subject. 

6.  The  A.L.A.  Index  to  General  Literature. 

7.  The  indexes  to  periodical  articles,  e.g.,  Poole's 
Index,  Annual  Library  Index,  Readers'  Guide  to 
Periodical  Literature,  etc. 

5.  In  making  a  bibliography  you  will  find  that  your 
labor  is  lightened  if  you  bear  in  mind  these  suggestions :  — 

1.  Make  the  list  of  entries  as  complete  as  possible 
before  you  begin  to  examine  the  books  themselves. 


MAKING  A  BIBLIOGRAPHY  223 

2.  In  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the  card  put  a 
letter  or  abbreviation  to  show  where  you  found 
your  information.  This  often  enables  you  to  trace 
and  correct  an  error  which  you  have  made  in  copy- 
ing. Use  L.C.  for  Library  Catalogue;  P.  for 
Poole's  Index;  E.B.  for  Encyclopaedia  Britannica, 
etc. 

3.  Write  on  the  back  of  the  card  any  note  about  the 
book  which  will  be  of  assistance  to  you  in  your 
work;  e.g.,  "not  in  University  Library,  March 
1913";  "out  of  date";  "good  illustrations"; 
"Note  p.  273-286";  "useless";  "in  Public  Li- 
brary; call  number ";  etc. 

4.  Arrange  alphabetically  by  author  the  cards  for 
books  or  articles  which  you  have  already  examined. 
This  is  necessary  in  order  to  save  time  in  finding 
a  card  when  you  have  a  large  number.  Use  a 
filing  box  and  alphabetical  guide  cards  if  you  have 
two  or  three  hundred  cards. 


V 

FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 
i.  DESCRIPTION 

1.  Definition. 

Description  is  the  name  given  to  writing  which  has 
as  its  main  purpose  to  produce  in  the  mind  of  the 
reader  a  picture  of  some  thing,  person,  or  place  which 
has  been  seen  or  imagined  by  the  writer. 

With  regard  to  these  materials,  description  may 
give  the  reader  an  idea  of  (1)  their  appearance,  (2) 
their  movements,  actions,  or  changes,  (3)  the  influ- 
ence which  sight  of  them  has  upon  the  mind  of  the 
spectator. 

Description  is  used  in  books  of  travel,  in  magazine 
sketches,  and  in  some  kinds  of  poetry,  for  its  own 
sake,  and  for  the  pleasure  and  the  suggestions  which 
it  gives. 

2.  Description  and  other  forms  of  writing. 

The  descriptive  process  of  writing  is  used  as  a  sub- 
ordinate method  in  writing  that  is  called  — 

(a)  Expository,  whenever  it  is  necessary  for  the  reader 
to  have  a  clear  idea  or  picture  of  an  object,  ma- 
chine, piece  of  apparatus,  building,  place,  or  plan, 
before  he  can  fully  understand  the  explanation 
which  is  connected  with  it. 

(b)  Narrative,  whenever  it  is  necessary  to  give  the 
reader  a  vivid  or  definite  picture  of  the  scene,  the 
characters,  and  their  actions. 


DESCRIPTION  225 

(c)  Dramatic,  in  the  stage  directions  when  it  is  neces- 
sary to  indicate  the  appearance  of  a  character  or 
the  stage  setting;  or  in  the  play  itself,  in  connec- 
tion with  explanations  or  accounts  of  actions. 

3.  Description  and  other  arts  of  expression. 

Description,  on  account  of  the  great  variety  of  the 
materials  with  which  it  deals,  and  because  of  the  wide 
range  of  effects  which  it  produces,  is  related  to :  — 

1.  Painting,  which  uses  color,  and  light  and  shade  as 
its  means  of  expression. 

2.  Sculpture,  which  uses  form. 

3.  Music,  which  uses  sound. 

4.  The  technical  and  constructive  arts,  which  make  use 
of  physical  materials. 

Description  differs  from  all  of  these  arts  in  not  being 
able  to  convey  its  impressions  directly  to  the  senses, 
but  only  through  the  symbols  of  language.  Its  appeal 
is,  therefore,  not  so  immediate  and  not  so  vivid. 

Description,  however,  like  these  other  arts,  makes 
use  of  the  fundamental  processes  of  selection  and 
rejection,  arrangement  and  proportion,  emphasis  and 
subordination,  unity,  coherence,  and  variety. 

4«  Description  and  painting. 

Description  has  a  closer  relation  to  painting  than 
to  any  other  one  of  the  arts  of  expression.  The  fol- 
lowing points  should  be  noted  and  verified  by  the  stu- 
dent's own  observation :  — 

1.  Just  as  painting  is  less  vivid  than  nature,  so  de- 
scription is  in  turn  less  vivid  than  painting  in  the 
impression  produced. 

2.  Description  has  a  wider  range  than  painting,  which 
is  confined :  — 

(a)  To  one  instant  of  time,  whereas  description, 


226  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

by  means  of  the  variable  or  progressive  point 
of  view  (q.v.)  may  give  successive  scenes. 
(6)  To  the  sense  of  sight  (color,  size,  shape,  con- 
tour, light  and  shade,  perspective),  whereas 
description  uses,  in  addition  to  these,  sounds, 
smells,  tastes,  sensations  of  touch,  heat,  com- 
fort, and  the  various  physical  and  emotional 
effects  which  the  material  described  may 
produce  upon  the  observer. 

3.  Description  sometimes  makes  use  of  material  which 
is  either  unsuited  for  (e.g.,  horrible  or  disagreeable 
objects,  and  complicated  scenes),  or  impossible  of 
(e.g.,  moving  objects,  impressions  on  observer, 
progressive  action,  or  scenes  in  darkness),  treat- 
ment in  painting. 

4.  The  student  should  avoid  "word-painting,"  or  the 
attempt,  by  an  exaggerated  use  of  color  words,  to 
do  what  can  be  satisfactorily  done  only  with 
paint.  This  literary  temptation  is  akin  to  that 
known  as  "fine  writing." 

5«  Fundamental  factors  in  description. 

1.  The  external  object  or  raw  material,  which  is  the 
subject  of  the  description,  and  which  is  generally 
independent  of  the  observer.  It  usually  affords 
an  amount  of  detail  or  of  suggestion  in  excess  of 
that  which  will  be  used  by  the  writer. 

2.  The  writer's  perception  of  the  object  to  be  de- 
scribed. The  accuracy  and  quality  of  this  image 
will  depend  largely  upon  the  keenness  of  the 
writer's  senses,  upon  his  memory,  his  interests, 
and  his  previous  training.  Ability  to  perceive 
accurately  and  to  remember  completely  can  be 
developed  by  training.  When  the  opportunity  for 
observation  and  examination  is  limited  to  a  very 


• 


DESCRIPTION  227 

short  time,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  concentrate 
the  attention  and  to  get  the  clearest  possible  im- 
pression. It  should  be  noted  that  the  material 
exists  now  in  the  form  of  ideas,  that  it  is  therefore 
independent  of  its  original  source,  and  that  it  is  in 
a  form  which  makes  it  possible  for  the  writer  to 
supplement  it  by  ideas  drawn  either  from  his 
memory  or  from  his  imagination. 

3.  The  written  description.  In  this  stage  the  ideas  in 
the  mind  of  the  writer  are  transformed  into  the 
symbols  of  written  speech.  They  are  now  in  an 
external  form  which,  unlike  a  painted  picture, 
bears  no  resemblance  to  their  original,  but  which 
secures  their  preservation  and  their  transmission 
to  any  number  of  readers.  This  step  involves  on 
the  part  of  the  writer  a  command  over  his  ideas 
on  the  one  hand,  and  a  facility  in  the  use  of  a 
well-supplied  descriptive  vocabulary  on  the  other 
hand. 

4.  The  reader's  reconstruction  or  reproduction  of  the 
original  object  or  scene  as  a  picture  or  idea  in  his 
own  mind.  This  reproduction  can  be  made  only 
through  some  medium,  and  hence  the  success  of 
the  transferring  of  an  idea  to  the  mind  of  the 
reader  will  depend  largely  upon  the  quality  of  the 
description.  The  completeness,  accuracy,  and 
vividness  of  this  picture  will  depend  also  upon  the 
reader's  interest,  upon  his  previous  training,  and 
upon  his  imagination. 

6.  Four  methods  of  description. 

The  following  general  distinctions  in  method  may 
be  made  for  purposes  of  clearness  and  convenience, 
if  the  student  will  remember  that  these  methods 
shade  into  one  another  and  in  practice  are  frequently 


228  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

combined.  In  the  first  method,  fact  predominates, 
and  in  the  last,  imagination.  In  the  former  the  ori- 
ginality of  the  writer  has  least  freedom,  and  in  the 
last,  widest  scope.  The  two  intervening  methods 
involve  a  combination  of  these  two  elements :  — 

1.  The  scientific  or  exact,  which  consists  of  a  complete 
and  accurate,  even  technical,  account  of  parts, 
characteristics,  and  relations.  It  involves  a  kind  of 
photographic  realism,  and  is  largely  used  in  dic- 
tionaries, encyclopaedias,  text-books,  and  scientific 
and  technical  publications. 

2.  The  popular  or  practical,  which  consists  of  a  brief 
enumeration  of  characteristics,  an  inventory  of 
parts,  or  a  short  series  of  striking  or  obvious  quali- 
ties. It  is  used  largely  in  conversation,  in  cata- 
logues, and  in  advertisements. 

3.  The  artistic  or  pictorial,  which  consists  of  a  skillful 
grouping  of  selected  details,  so  arranged  as  to  pro- 
duce a  pleasing  impression  upon  the  reader.  It  is 
used  largely  in  books  of  travel,  in  magazine 
sketches  of  local  color,  and  in  novels. 

4.  The  suggestive  or  imaginative,  which  appeals  largely 
to  the  emotions  and  seeks  to  produce  its  impression 
by  arousing  associated  ideas.  It  frequently  gives 
the  reader  the  vague  and  general  outlines  of  the 
picture  and  allows  him  either  to  fill  in  the  details 
as  he  wishes,  or  else,  as  in  the  case  of  music,  it  en- 
courages him  to  enjoy  the  emotional  and  imagina- 
tive suggestions  which  it  arouses  in  him. 

Examples  may  be  found  in  poetry  and  in  stories  of 
the  more  imaginative  kind. 

7«  Points  of  view  in  description. 
1.  Single,  fixed,  or  stationary. 

This  point  of  view  is  generally  used  in  the  case  of 


DESCRIPTION  229 

small  objects,  objects  which  can  be  conveniently 
seen  from  only  one  situation,  or  objects  which 
present  only  a  single  characteristic  aspect.  It  has 
the  advantage  of  allowing  the  writer  to  make  a 
minute  and  careful  examination  of  details.  It  has 
the  disadvantage  of  limiting  him  to  only  one  view, 
of  tending  to  spoil  proportion,  and  becoming  tire- 
some if  too  long  continued.  When  a  single  point  of 
view  is  used,  it  should  be  selected  with  care  as 
being  the  best  for  a  satisfactory  view. 

Examples  of  this  point  of  view  might  be  the  scene 
from  a  seat  in  the  theater,  or  from  a  window. 

2.   Plural,  changeable,  or  movable 

This  generally  consists  of  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent and  disconnected  views  of  the  same  ob- 
ject or  place  from  different  angles.  It  is  used  when 
it  is  necessary  to  present  different  aspects  of  a  sub- 
ject, and  when  this  information  cannot  be  ob- 
tained from  the  first  point  of  view.  This  method 
has  the  advantage  of  allowing  the  secondary 
points  of  view  usually  to  be  selected  by  the 
observer,  and  of  rendering  possible  the  comparison 
of  one  view  with  another.  It  has  the  disadvantage 
of  a  possible  difficulty  on  the  part  of  the  reader  in 
relating  one  view  to  another,  and  on  the  part  of  the 
writer  of  a  difficulty  in  keeping  one  view  from 
overbalancing  the  others.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
select  the  fewest  points  of  view  consistent  with 
clearness,  and  to  indicate  clearly  to  the  reader 
their  relation  to  one  another.  This  method  in 
practice  frequently,  though  not  necessarily,  affords 
less  detail  than  the  first. 

Examples  of  this  point  of  view  may  be  found  in 
descriptions  of  buildings  where  two  sides,  or  back  and 


230  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

front,  must  be  seen  in  order  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of 
the  structure.  Distant  and  near  views  also  illustrate 
this  use  of  two  or  more  points  of  view. 

3.  The  progressive  or  continuous. 

This  point  of  view  consists  of  continuously 
moving  past  or  around  the  object  to  be  described. 
It  is  generally  used  of  necessity  when  the  observer 
is  driving,  or  traveling  on  a  boat  or  in  a  train,  or 
from  choice  when  it  is  desirable  to  cover  a  large 
area  or  to  describe  a  large  object  without  much 
attention  to  detail.  It  has  the  advantage  of  scope 
and  inclusiveness,  but  the  corresponding  disad- 
vantage of  not  supplying  accurate  or  detailed 
conceptions. 

Examples  of  this  method  may  be  found  in  descrip- 
tions of  scenery  from  an  automobile,  of  a  trip  through  a 
gorge  or  rapids,  of  the  different  steps  in  a  manufactory, 
etc. 

4.  The  panoramic  or  bird's-eye. 

This  may  be  considered  as  a  combination  of  the 
second  and  third  points  of  view.  It  has  the  advan- 
tage of  being  the  only  way  in  which  one  can  get  an 
idea  of  a  large  area  of  country,  of  the  plan  of  a  city, 
or  of  a  battlefield.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of 
giving  an  unusual  perspective,  no  details,  and  only 
the  large  or  salient  features  of  the  scene.  It  fre- 
quently has  to  be  assumed  imaginatively  by  the 
writer. 

Examples  of  this  method  of  description  may  be 
found  in  accounts  of  views  from  the  tops  of  high  build- 
ings or  mountains,  from  balloons  or  aeroplanes,  or  from 
the  "lookout"  points  frequented  by  tourists. 

8.  Gathering  material  for  description. 

1.  Note  that  in  your  own  experience  the  clearness  and 


DESCRIPTION  231 

vividness  of  an  impression  upon  your  mind  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  length  of  the  time  during 
which  you  perceived  the  object.  Careful  observa- 
tion, therefore,  demands  time  and  concentrated 
attention. 

2.  Test  your  own  impressions  to  see  whether  your 
information  consists  of  these  four  stages:  (a)  mere 
realization  of  existence,  contrast,  or  change;  (6) 
vague  or  general  ideas  of  size,  shape,  position, 
number,  color,  and  material;  (c)  general  ideas 
which  become  particular  and  definite;  (d)  hitherto 
unseen  or  unrealized  aspects  or  qualities  which 
become  apparent  through  careful  scrutiny. 

3.  Realize  that  the  object  of  your  description  must  be 
seen  under  suitable  conditions  with  regard  to :  (a) 
point  of  view;  (b)  time;  (c)  lighting  conditions. 

4.  Try  to  observe  carefully  and  thoroughly,  and  to 
remember  distinctly  and  accurately  what  you  have 
noticed.  Do  not  merely  look  at  a  thing,  but  try  to 
see  it.  For  the  beginner  it  is  advisable  either  to 
make  notes  at  the  time  of  observation,  or  to  write 
the  description  before  the  memory  of  the  scene  has 
become  blurred  or  confused  by  later  impressions. 

5.  If  possible  determine  what  is  the  center  of  interest, 
and  let  that  help  to  give  unity  to  your  interpreta- 
tion of  details. 

6.  Reject  all  insignificant  or  confusing  details,  how- 
ever interesting  they  may  be  in  themselves,  unless 
they  bear  some  definite  relation  to  the  main  pur- 
pose of  the  description. 

7.  Group  the  important  aspects  in  some  definite 
order,  which  may  be  either  (a)  logical,  or  (6)  de- 
pendent upon  the  impression  which  you  wish  to 
produce  upon  the  reader's  mind. 


232  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

8.  The  chief  material  for  description  comes  through 
the  sense  of  sight.  Supplement  this  whenever 
necessary  by  the  other  senses,  especially  sound, 
which  has  a  high  suggestive  value. 

9.  Technical  terms. 

1.  Fundamental  image.  By  this  term  is  meant  that 
characteristic  aspect,  comparison,  or  figure  of 
speech  which  is  selected  as  a  suggestive  basis  or 
foundation  upon  which  the  reader  may  conven- 
iently construct  the  remainder  of  the  picture  by 
adding  the  subsequent  details  of  the  description. 
The  image  should  be  vivid  and  familiar.  It  is  not 
necessarily  made  use  of  in  every  description,  but 
when  employed  it  should  emphasize  only  general 
similarities  or  aspects. 

2.  Dominant  impression.  From  the  writer's  point  of 
view  this  is  the  chief  aspect  of  a  scene  which  he 
wishes  to  emphasize  in  his  description;  it  may  be 
some  detail  or  part  of  the  subject  or  scene,  or  it 
may  be  a  general  feeling  produced  by  a  part  or 
the  whole  of  the  scene.  From  the  reader's  point 
of  view  it  is  the  chief  idea  or  impression  that 
remains  in  his  mind  after  reading  the  descrip- 
tion. 

3.  Local  color.  This  term  has  been  transferred  to 
description  from  painting,  and  the  meaning  has 
been  enlarged  to  include  all  those  characteristics 
of  a  particular  locality  or  scene  which  are  pecu- 
liar to  it  and  which  serve  to  distinguish  it  from 
others. 

4.  Pathetic  fallacy.  This  term  characterizes  the  pro- 
cess of  attributing  to  natural  phenomena  thoughts, 
emotions,  or  actions  which  are  really  only  human. 
This  method  of  description  is  generally  the  result 


DESCRIPTION  233 

of  strong  emotion  or  imagination.    (See  Ruskin: 
Modern  Painters,  part  iv,  chap,  xn.) 

10.  Description  of  individuals. 

The  chief  difficulties  in  describing  individuals  are 
due  to  the  following  causes :  — 

1.  The  writer  is  limited  by  the  comparatively  few 
details  at  his  disposal. 

2.  The  majority  of  people  are  commonplace  and  fre- 
quently present  little  that  is  distinctive. 

3.  Appearances  change  with  familiarity. 

4.  The  human  face  is  difficult  to  describe  on  account 
of  the  variety  of  expressions  of  which  it  is  sus- 
ceptible. 

5.  There  is  no  necessary  or  universal  correspondence 
between  physical  features  and  intellectual,  emo- 
tional, and  moral  characteristics. 

6.  The  words  that  must  necessarily  be  used  are  vague 
and  are  often  unsuggestive  of  clear  and  distinct 
mental  pictures. 

11.  Conditions  of  good  description. 

1.  Comparative  isolation  of  subject. 

2.  Careful  observation. 

3.  Sympathetic  appreciation  of  distinctive  traits  or 
dominant  characteristics. 

4.  Experienced  judgment,  dispassionate  reflection, 
and  wide  knowledge  of  life. 

12.  General  methods. 

1.  To  indicate  the  relation  of  a  person  to  others  or  to 
a  scene. 

2.  To  give  merely  an  accurate  or  pleasing  picture. 

3.  To  give  an  indication  of  character  as  well  as  ap- 
pearance, and  thus  to  interpret  as  well  as  describe 
personality. 


234  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

13.  Pictorial  value  of  people  as  subordinate  elements  in  a 
large  scene. 

1.  Number. 

2.  Grouping. 

3.  Action. 

4.  Color. 

5.  Human  interest  by  suggestion. 

6.  Relative  value. 

7.  Appropriateness  to  environment. 

8.  Age  and  sex. 

14-  Portraits  of  individuals. 

1.  Method:  — 

(a)  Identification. 

(b)  Portraiture. 

2.  Scale:  head,  bust,  full  length,  etc. 

3.  Background:  what,  and  why  selected. 

4.  General  appearance:  clothes,  age,  general  impres- 
sion. 

5.  Suggestions  as  to  class  relations  and  occupation. 

6.  Individual  peculiarities  or  idiosyncrasies. 

7.  Suggestion  of  dominant  characteristics. 

8.  Emotional  or  intellectual  power  or  weakness. 

15.  Individuals  as  actors  in  a  story  or  drama. 

1.  Relation  to   situation;   location,   grouping,   and 
movement. 

2.  Difference  in  method  if  character  is  predominantly 
(a)  a  speaker  or 

(6)  an  actor. 

3.  Appearance. 

4.  Emotional  or  intellectual  condition :  — 

(a)  Active  or  expressive. 

(b)  Passive  or  receptive. 

5.  Actions:  — 


DESCRIPTION  235 

(a)  Habitual  or  characteristic. 
(6)  Special    and    necessary    to    development    of 
theme  of  story  or  drama. 

l6.  Functions  of  descriptive  words. 

1.  To  designate,  localize,  or  qualify  an  object. 

2.  To  suggest  visual  pictures. 

3.  To  arouse  emotion  in  the  reader. 

17*  Desirable  qualities  of  expression. 

1.  Accuracy  and  precision. 

2.  Wide  range. 

3.  Sensitiveness  to  fine  shades  of  discrimination. 

4.  Economy  of  words,  combined  with  efficiency  of 
impression. 

5.  Felicity  of  expression  involving  a  search  for  the 
right  word  or  happy  epithet. 

(a)  Omission  of  insignificant  details. 
(6)  Emphasis  on  significant  aspects. 

(c)  Arrest  of  reader's  attention  and  consequent 
clearness  of  mental  picture. 

(d)  Value  in  training  writer  in  fine  discrimination. 

(e)  Danger  of  artificiality  if  overworked  or  clum- 
sily used. 

1 8.  Descriptive  parts  of  speech. 

Since  the  effect  produced  depends  so  much  upon  the 
choice  of  words,  the  writer  should  pay  particular 
attention  to  his  selection  and  use  of :  — 

1.  Verbs,  which  describe  action  and  make  it  definite 
by  a  quick  appeal  to  the  reader's  mind. 

2.  Adverbs,  which  deal  with  manner,  and  limit,  qual- 
ify, and  define  action. 

3.  Adjectives,  which  deal  with  quality,  and  limit, 
qualify,  and  define  objects. 


236  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

19.  Figurative  language. 

1.  Figurative  language  is  valuable  because  of  its 
image-producing  power,  its  suggestiveness,  and  its 
interpretation  of  essential  characteristics. 

2.  Figures  of  speech  are  either :  — 

(a)  Static,  describing  appearance,  or 

(6)  Active,  describing  actions  and  movements. 

3.  The  main  figures  of  speech  are :  — 

(a)  Metaphor  —  identification  of  two  ideas. 
(6)  Simile  —  likeness  of  two  ideas. 
(For  fuller  treatment,  see  pages  157-61). 

20.  Sound  value  of  language.  In  addition  to  the  meaning 
of  words  there  are  three  aspects  of  the  sound  of  words 
which  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  writing:  — 

1.  Onomatopoeia,  in  which  the  sound  suggests  the 
actual  sound  described;  i.e.,  buzz,  whirr,  swirl, 
swish,  rattle,  clang,  roar,  boom,  clatter,  pop. 

2.  Alliteration,  in  which  several  words  close  together 
in  the  sentence  begin  with  the  same  consonant  or 
sound;  e.g.,  the  low,  lazy  lap  of  the  waves;  falling 
flakes  and  fragments. 

3.  Melody,  which  comes  largely  from  the  avoidance 
of  harsh  groups  of  consonants,  and  of  the  unnec- 
essary repetition  of  the  same  word  within  a  few 
lines. 

2 1 .  Criticism  of  description. 

The  student  may  ask  himself  some  of  the  following 
questions  with  regard  to  (a)  extracts  in  a  textbook  or 
those  selected  by  the  instructor;  (6)  his  own  work;  (c) 
the  descriptions  written  by  students  in  the  class. 
Criticism  may  be  either  informal  and  oral,  or  organ- 
ized and  written. 
1.  Has  the  selection  unity?  Does  it  make  a  definite 


DESCRIPTION  237 

appeal  and  leave  a  clear  picture  in  the  mind? 
What  is  the  chief  center  of  interest? 

2.  Does  the  writer  depend  more  upon  the  sense  of 
sight  or  of  hearing  for  his  material? 

3.  Does  he  give  you  the  impression  of  having  mas- 
tered his  subject,  and  of  having  clearly  realized 
the  relations  of  its  parts? 

4.  Is  he  more  interested  in  large  aspects  or  in  small 
details?  Is  the  scale  large  or  small? 

5.  Does  he  indicate  his  point  of  view?  Is  it  well 
chosen?  Does  he  change  it?  If  so,  how  does  he 
indicate  the  transition? 

6.  Has  the  writer  the  power  to  indicate  perspective 
and  atmosphere? 

7.  Has  he  a  wide  choice  of  words?  Precision  in  his 
choice  of  epithets? 

8.  Discuss  his  use  of  synonyms  and  of  figures  of 
speech. 

9.  Is  his  vocabulary  commonplace  or  distinctive  and 
individual? 

10.  Are  his  suggestions  predominantly  directed  to  the 
eye  or  to  the  ear? 

11.  Does  he  arouse  any  emotion  in  you?   Does  his 
description  appeal  to  the  imagination? 

12.  Is  his  attitude  toward  his  material  sympathetic? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Select  three  different  descriptions  to  show  respectively :  (1) 
mere  appearance,  (2)  action,  (3)  influence  upon  spectator. 

2.  Find  one  description  which  is  pleasing  and  another  which  is 
displeasing  to  you,  and  explain  the  reason  for  the  difference 
in  your  feelings. 

3.  Select  from  an  encyclopaedia,  from  a  good  novel,  and  from 
Shakespeare's  plays  examples  of  description.  Show  how  they 
differ  in  purpose  and  in  detail. 


238  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

4.  Find  in  a  book  or  in  an  art  gallery  pictures  which  (a)  give  an 
impression  that  could  not  be  given  by  words;  (6)  are  un- 
pleasant in  subject;  (c)  fail  to  tell  a  story;  (d)  show  a  good  use 
of  selection,  arrangement,  and  emphasis. 

5.  Find  examples  of  description  which  depend  almost  entirely 
upon  sound.  Suggest  several  possible  subjects  for  "sound 
description."  Keep  a  list  of  words  that  suggest  sound.  No- 
tice upon  what  occasions  a  novelist  makes  use  of  sound  in 
addition  to  the  speech  of  characters. 

6.  Notice  the  difference  in  the  impression  which  is  made  upon 
you  by  a  description  that  makes  use  of  only  size,  shape,  posi- 
tion, etc.,  and  one  that  makes  use  only  of  color.  Does  any- 
thing seem  lacking  in  either  case? 

7.  Select  examples,  from  the  newspapers  or  magazines,  of  de- 
scriptions where  the  writer  seems  to  be  thinking  more  of  the 
words  which  he  is  using  than  of  the  things  which  he  is 
describing.  What  makes  you  feel  that  this  is  the  case? 

8.  Test  the  completeness  and  the  accuracy  of  your  observation 
by  looking  for  two  minutes  into  a  shop  window,  or  at  a  scene. 
Then  make  a  list  of  the  details  that  you  can  remember. 
Compare  your  list  with  the  reality  and  notice  the  number  and 
the  character  of  your  omissions.  Try  a  similar  experiment, 
allowing  a  day  to  elapse  before  you  write  your  list.  Compare 
as  before  and  note  any  differences  in  the  omissions. 

9.  Do  you  prefer  music  to  painting?  Is  it  easier  for  you  to 
remember  sights  or  sounds?  Has  this  fact  any  indirect  influ- 
ence upon  your  descriptions? 

10.  Try  to  notice  what  happens  when  you  read  a  description. 
How  does  your  mind  begin  to  react?  How  does  the  picture 
grow?  Can  you  shut  your  eyes  and  see  it?  Practice  until  you 
can  imagine  a  scene  vividly. 

11.  Read  one  of  your  own  descriptions  to  a  student  in  your  class 
and  question  him  to  find  out  whether  he  has  been  able,  from 
your  description,  to  reconstruct  the  picture  in  his  mind.  If 
not,  find  out  the  reason. 

12.  Find  several  illustrations  for:  — 

(a)  the  different  methods  of  description; 

(b)  the  different  points  of  view. 

13.  See  whether  you  can  find  examples  of  description  in  which 
either  taste  or  smell  is  referred  to. 

14.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  local  color  and  by  the  pathetic 


DESCRIPTION  239 

fallacy.  Select  original  examples  of  each.  Read  the  chapter  in 
Ruskin  to  which  reference  is  made. 

15.  What  kinds  of  persons  are  easiest  to  describe?  Which  hard- 
est? Why? 

16.  Is  it  easier  to  describe  a  friend  or  a  stranger?  A  man  or  a 
woman?  A  young  or  an  old  person? 

17.  Select,  from  the  descriptions  which  you  have  studied,  words 
or  expressions  which  seem  to  you  to  be:  — 

(a)  striking  and  original; 

(6)   hackneyed  and  commonplace; 

(c)   precise  and  accurate. 

18.  With  regard  to  the  use  of  details  in  the  description  of  indi- 
viduals, ask  yourself  such  questions  as :  Which  details  are  es- 
sential? Which  are  easily  changed?  Which  are  occasional 
or  transitory?  Which  express  permanent  characteristics? 
Which  express  passing  emotion  or  mood?  Which  indicate  age, 
class  or  occupation,  disposition,  state  of  mind?  How  would 
you  indicate  anger,  affection,  hatred,  fear,  surprise,  joy,  de- 
ception, etc.? 

THEME   SUBJECTS 

1.  Your  own  room  from  where  you  are  sitting. 

2.  A  large  room  dimly  lighted. 

3.  The  reading-room  of  the  library. 

4.  The  outside  of  a  small  house. 

5.  The  finest  house  in  town. 

6.  The  oldest  house  I  know. 

7.  A  picturesque  cottage. 

8.  Your  mother,  father,  brother,  sister,  or  chum. 

9.  A  total  stranger  whom  you  have  passed  on  the  street. 

10.  Such  persons  as  the  postman,  the  traffic  policeman,  the 
grocery  boy,  our  chauffeur,  our  gardener,  the  peddler,  the 
beggar,  etc. 

11.  A  crowd  in  the  lunch  room  at  noon,  in  the  street  during  a  fire 
or  an  accident,  after  the  theater,  at  a  baseball  game,  watching 
a  parade,  on  the  pier  waiting  for  the  steamer,  on  the  station 
platform,  etc. 

12.  Types  of  people  whom  you  know:  the  hustler,  the  loafer,  the 
professor,  the  student,  the  old-clothes  man,  the  janitor,  etc. 

13.  A  person  of  marked  individuality  or  of  unusual  appearance. 


240  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

14.  An  individual  under  strong  emotion  such  as  anger,  fear,  joy, 
surprise,  etc. 

15.  A  wireless  outfit,  a  telephone,  an  aeroplane,  a  typewriter,  an 
adding  machine,  a  cash  register,  a  burglar  alarm,  a  motor 
boat,  a  safety  razor,  a  sewing  machine,  a  grass  cutter,  a  wash- 
ing machine,  etc.,  from  (1)  a  popular  point  of  view,  and  (2)  an 
exact  scientific  point  of  view. 

16.  A  scene  such  as  a  city  street,  a  country  lane,  a  park,  a 
meadow,  a  vista  through  the  trees,  the  river,  the  beach,  etc., 
in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  impression  of  a  beautiful  picture. 

17.  A  scene  by  moonlight,  in  rain,  in  a  storm,  under  strong  sun- 
light, etc.,  in  such  a  way  as  to  suggest  the  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings that  the  scene  would  arouse  in  a  spectator. 

18.  In  terms  of  color,  such  a  scene  as  a  shop  counter,  people  com- 
ing out  of  church,  the  bleachers  at  a  game,  a  flower  garden, 
pushcarts,  twilight  in  the  city,  a  theater  audience,  the  county 
fair,  a  May  Day  fete,  etc. 

19.  In  terms  of  sound,  such  a  scene  as  the  interior  of  a  factory,  a 
railroad  station,  the  library  in  the  evening,  the  college 
campus,  an  auction,  the  woods  at  night,  the  barnyard,  the 
students'  parade,  a  circus,  etc. 

20.  A  painting  or  a  piece  of  sculpture  at  the  art  gallery,  a  monu- 
ment, or  an  historic  ruin. 

21.  A  familiar  scene,  either  at  home  or  abroad,  which  is  rich  in 
local  color,  such  as  a  tenement  district,  a  foreign  quarter,  the 
flower  market,  the  docks  at  a  seaport,  a  native  market  in  some 
foreign  country,  etc. 

REFERENCES 

Adams,  John.  Exposition  and  Illustration  in  Teaching. 

Albright,  E.  M.   Descriptive  Writing. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   College  Manual  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  169-88. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Composition  Oral  and  Written,  p.  33-63. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.  How  to  Write,  pp.  162-97. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.  Specimens  of  Prose  Description. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.    Writing  and  Speaking,  pp.  108-54. 

Berkeley,  F.  C.  College  Course  in  Writing  from  Models,  pp.  251- 
343. 

Brewster,  W.  T.  English  Composition  and  Style,  pp.  339-49. 

Brown  and  Barnes.   The  Art  of  Writing  English,  pp.  303-31. 

Canby,  H.  S.,  and  others.  English  Composition  in  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice, pp.  254-98. 


EXPOSITION  241 

Carpenter,  G.  R.  Model  English  Prose,  pp.  11-72. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.   Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  299-329. 
Duncan,  C.  S.,  and  others.   Prose  Specimens,  pp.  1-105. 
Fulton,  Edward.   English  Prose  Composition,  pp.  191-231. 
Gardiner,    Kittredge,    and    Arnold.     Manual  of  Composition, 

pp.  89-144. 
Genung,  J.  F.    Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  326-53. 
Genung,  J.  F.   The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  477-510. 
Grose,  H.  B.  Specimens  of  English  Composition,  pp.  306-93. 
Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Composition,  pp.  192-205. 
Herrick  and  Damon.  New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools, 

pp.  427-40. 
Hill,  A.  S.  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  249-80. 
Lewis,  E.  H.  Specimens  of  the  Forms  of  Discourse,  pp.  1-54. 
Linn,  J.  W.  Illustrative  Examples  of  English  Composition,  pp.  137- 

75. 
Linn,  J.  W.   The  Essentials  of  English  Composition,  pp.  168-82. 
Newcomer,  A.  G.  Practical  Course  in  English  Composition,  pp.  47- 

107. 
Newcomer  and  Seward.  Rhetoric  in  Practice,  pp.  26-39. 
Nutter,  Hersey,  and  Greenough.  Specimens  of  Prose  Composition, 

pp.  232-366. 
Rankin  and  Brumm.   Materials  for  Study  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  5-36. 
Roustan,  M.  La  Description  et  le  Portrait. 
Stebbins,  C.  M.  A  Progressive  Course  in  English,  pp.  28-61. 
Sykes,  F.  H.  Elementary  English  Composition,  pp.  132-98. 
Taylor,  J.  R.   Composition  in  Narration,  pp.  75-95. 
Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  272-308. 
Webster,  W.  F.  English  Composition  and  Literature,  pp.  49-88. 

2.  EXPOSITION 

1.  Definition. 

Exposition,  as  a  phase  of  writing,  consists  of  the 
explanation  of  a  term,  idea,  conception,  belief,  process, 
object,  machine,  institution,  series  of  events  or 
actions,  etc.,  with  the  purpose  of  making  any  of  these 
clearly  understood  by  the  reader  in  its  essential  parts, 
in  its  function,  or  in  its  implications. 

2.  Purposes. 

Exposition  may  have  any  of  the  following  pur- 
poses:— 


242  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

1.  To  explain  the  details  of  appearance  or  the  relation 
of  parts  of  an  object,  etc. 

2.  To  indicate  the  working  or  operation  of  some  ma- 
chine, institution,  etc. 

3.  To  make  clear  the  chief  steps  of  some  process  in 
manufacture,  in  the  sciences,  or  in  the  practical 
and  fine  arts. 

4.  To  show  a  person  how  to  perform  a  particular 
action,  or  how  to  accomplish  some  specific  end. 

5.  To  give  a  definite  idea  or  conception  or  to  show  the 
implications  of  a  term  or  statement. 

3.  Uses  of  exposition. 

Exposition  is  the  prevailing  form  of  discourse  when 
a  writer  wishes :  — 

1.  To  appeal  to  his  reader's  intellect  rather  than  to 
his  feelings. 

2.  To  lay  a  foundation  for  or  to  assist  description, 
narration,  or  argument. 

3.  To  analyze,  define,  divide,  or  classify  ideas  or 
things. 

Examples  of  exposition  may  be  found  in :  — 

1.  Ordinary  conversation  in  answer  to  the  questions 
"How?"  and  "Why?" 

2.  In  addresses,  speeches,  sermons,  and  lectures. 

3.  In  textbooks  and  cyclopaedias. 

4.  In  many  magazine  articles. 

4.  Preparation  for  writing. 

1.  Make  yourself  thoroughly  familiar  with  your  sub- 
ject by:  — 

(a)  Observation  and  examination. 

(b)  Asking  questions  and  making  experiments. 

(c)  Reading  widely,  and  by  using  reference  books. 

2.  Become  familiar  with  the  names  of  parts  and  pro- 


EXPOSITION  243 

cesses,  and  put  your  ideas  definitely  into  words. 
Get  rid  of  all  vague  thoughts  before  you  begin  to 
write. 
3.  Make  an  outline  which,  as  far  as  material  is 
concerned  shall  be  clear,  complete,  coherent,  well 
proportioned,  and  constructed  according  to  the 
general  rules  for  form.     (See  pages  198-99.) 

5«  Suggestions  as  to  method. 

1.  Have  a  definite  purpose  in  writing.  State  it  in 
words,  and  refer  to  it  occasionally. 

2.  Choose  a  definite  point  of  view  and  keep  to  it 
consistently. 

3.  If  possible,  choose  a  subject:  — 
(a)  In  which  you  are  interested. 

(6)  With  which  you  are  already  familiar. 

(c)  About  which  you  can  readily  get  information. 

4.  Narrow  your  subject  down  to  something  definite 
by  a  process  of  rejection,  selection,  arrangement, 
and  emphasis. 

5.  Try  to  realize  your  reader's  attitude.  How  ignor- 
ant is  he?  What  prejudices  has  he?  Why  will  he 
read?  What  questions  will  he  wish  answered? 

6.  Make  your  exposition  follow  an  outline  in  which, 
from  the  point  of  view  of  method :  — 

(a)  The  subject  is  well  and  clearly  introduced. 
(6)  The  ideas  are  explained  simply,  clearly,  and 

systematically, 
(c)  The  chief  points  are  emphasized.    (See  page 

244.) 

7.  Throughout  the  actual  process  of  writing:  — 

(a)  Avoid  complicated  sentences. 

(b)  Pay  particular  attention  to  clearness  and  pre- 
cision in  the  selection  of  words. 

(c)  Always  explain  a  technical  term,  or  a  new  or 


244  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

unusual  word.  This  may  easily  be  done  by 
using  a  synonym  or  by  inserting  a  brief 
parenthesis. 

(d)  Be  as  vivid  and  as  realistic  as  possible. 

(e)  Be  careful  to  indicate  clearly  the  relation  of 
subordinate  ideas  to  one  another  and  to  the 
main  idea. 

(/)  Make  all  transitions  prefectly  apparent.  (See 
pages  90-91  and  section  7  below.) 

(g)  Write  in  such  a  way  that  the  possibility  of 
misunderstanding  will  be  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum. 

6.  Method  of  emphasis. 

1.  By  allowing  a  topic  time  and  space  commensurate 
with  its  importance. 

2.  By  repetition. 

3.  By  contrast. 

4.  By  selecting  strong,  emphatic  words. 

5.  By  the  quality  or  number  of  the  associated  ideas. 

6.  By  the  vividness  of  the  first  or  last  impression 
made  on  the  mind  of  the  reader. 

7.  By  a  series  increasing  in  impressive  power. 

8.  By  comparison,  simile,  and  metaphor. 

9.  By  wealth  and  minuteness  of  detail. 

10.  By  opportuneness  or  appropriateness  of  expres- 
sion. 

7«  Transition. 

A  transition  sentence  or  paragraph  may  consist  of: 

1.  A  retrospective  summary  of  what  has  gone  be- 
fore. 

2.  A  reminder  or  restatement  of  the  point  of  view. 

3.  A  prospective  introduction  in  preparation  for  a 
new  idea. 


EXPOSITION  245 

4.  A  definite  statement  of  the  next  step  in  the  dis- 
cussion. 

Transitions  are  frequently  used  to  lead  on  to 
definition,  implication,  discussion,  application,  sum- 
mary, or  conclusion. 

8.  Illustration. 

Illustrations,  as  used  in  exposition,  are  of  two  gen- 
eral classes : — 

1.  Concrete  examples,  in  the  case  of  general  state- 
ments, principles,  complicated  ideas,  etc.  The  ex- 
ample may  take  the  form  of  the  citation  of  an  his- 
toric fact,  a  personal  experience,  a  narrative,  etc. 

2.  Diagrams,  pictures,  plans,  sketches,  or  statistical 
tables,  to  be  used  whenever  necessary  for  greater 
clearness,  and  especially  when  subjects  are  exten- 
sive, when  the  reader  has  to  depend  much  upon  the 
sense  of  sight,  or  when  the  relation  of  parts  is 
intricate. 

The  chief  purposes  in  the  use  of  illustrative  ma- 
terial are  the  following :  — 

1.  To  help  the  reader  to  visualize  the  subject  and  to 
make  his  ideas  clear  and  lasting. 

2.  To  give  more  accurate,  definite  information  than 
can  be  given  merely  by  words. 

3.  To  provide  data  for  proof,  conclusion,  or  generali- 
zation. 

4.  In  the  case  of  the  popular  treatment,  to  attract  the 
reader's  attention  to  the  subject. 

5.  To  economize  space  and  effort,  on  the  part  of  both 
writer  and  reader,  by  providing  an  efficient  sub- 
stitute for  description,  especially  in  the  case  of 
technical  and  scientific  apparatus  and  processes. 

6.  In  the  case  of  fixed  space  requirements,  to  supple- 
ment a  meager  text. 


246  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

9.  Criticism  of  exposition. 

1.  Does  the  writer  show  evidence  of  lack  of  plan? 
Of  badly  proportioned  plan?  Of  poor  order  of 
details? 

2.  Is  his  vocabulary  well  selected?  Does  he  make  use 
of  unexplained  technical  terms? 

3.  Does  he  know  his  subject  thoroughly? 

4.  Does  he  realize  the  reader's  point  of  view? 

5.  Can  he  explain  clearly  and  systematically? 

6.  Has  he  omitted  or  overemphasized  parts  of  his 
subject? 

7.  Has  he  used  a  sufficient  number  of  clear  and  in- 
telligible illustrations? 

8.  Has  he  stimulated  the  reader  to  action  or  to 
further  thought  on  the  subject? 

REFERENCES 

Exposition 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   College  Manual  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  37-59. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Composition  Oral  and  Written,  pp.  2-32;  197-209. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.  How  to  Write;  a  Handbook  Based  on  the  English 
Bible,  pp.  54-103. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   The  Expository  Paragraph  and  Sentence. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Writing  and  Speaking,  pp.  222-325. 

Berkeley,  F.  C.   College  Course  in  Writing  from  Models,  pp.  3-248. 

Brewster,  W.  T.  English  Composition  and  Style,  pp.  350-63. 

Brown  and  Barnes.   The  Art  of  Writing  English,  pp.  225-57. 

Canby,  H.  S.,  and  others.  English  Composition  in  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice, pp.  1-162. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.  Model  English  Prose,  pp.  208-88. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.   Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  361-78. 

Duncan,  C.  S.,  and  others.   Prose  Specimens,  pp.  209-319. 

Foster,  W.  T.  Essentials  of  Exposition  and  Argument,  pp.  3-16. 

Fulton,  Edward.  English  Prose  Composition,  pp.  51-110. 

Fulton,  M.  G.  Expository  Writing;  College  Course. 

Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold.  Manual  of  Composition,  pp. 
145-210. 

Genung,  J.  F.  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  383-406. 

Genung,  J.  F.   The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  554-96. 


EXPOSITION  247 

Grose,  H.  B.  Specimens  of  English  Composition,  pp.  1-182. 

Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Composition,  pp.  206-16. 

Herrick  and  Damon,  New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools,  pp. 

85-105. 
Hill,  A.  S.   Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  300-26. 
Jelliffe,  R.  A.   Handbook  of  Exposition. 
Lamont,  Hammond.  Specimens  of  Exposition. 
Lewis,  E.  H.  Specimens  of  the  Forms  of  Discourse,  pp.  127-232. 
Linn,  J.  W.   Illustrative  Examples  of  English  Composition,  pp.  3—80. 
Linn,  J.  W.   The  Essentials  of  English  Composition,  pp.  111-20. 
Mitchell  and  Carpenter.  Exposition  in  Classroom  Practice. 
Nason,  A.  H.   Talks  on  Theme  Writing,  pp.  106-74. 
Neal,  R.  W.   Thought  Building  in  Composition. 
Newcomer,  A.  G.  Practical  Course  in  English  Composition,  pp.  119- 

36. 
Newcomer  and  Seward.  Rhetoric  in  Practice,  pp.  40-62. 
Nutter,  C.  R.,  and  others.  Specimens  of  Prose  Composition,  pp.  3-72. 
Percival  and  Jelliffe.     Specimens  of  Exposition  and  Argument, 

pp. 1-149. 
Perry,  F.  M.  Introductory  Course  in  Exposition. 
Rankin  and  Brumm.  Materials  for  the  Study  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  51-68. 
Rickard,  T.  A.  A  Guide  to  Technical  Writing. 
Roe,  F.  W.,  and  Elliott,  G.  R.    English  Prose:  a  Series  of  Related 

Essays. 
Roust  an,  M.  La  Dissertation  Litteraire. 
Stebbins,  C.  M.  A  Progressive  Course  in  English,  pp.  62-89. 
Steeves,  H.  R.,  and  Ristine,  F.  H.  Representative  Essays  in  Modern 

Thought. 
Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  308-32. 
Webster,  W.  F.  English  Composition  and  Literature,  pp.  89-127. 

Criticism 

Bates,  Arlo.   Talks  on  Writing  English,  vol.  I,  pp.  285-98. 

Bray,  J.  W.  A  History  of  English  Critical  Terms. 

Cooper,  F.  T.   Craftsmanship  of  Writing,  pp.  47-78. 

Gayley  and  Scott.   Methods  and  Materials  of  Literary  Criticism. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.   Teaching  the  Language- Arts,  pp.  185-98. 

Hitchcock,  A.  M.   Enlarged  Practice-Book  in  English  Composition, 

pp.  373-77. 
Jordan,  M.  A.   Correct  Writing  and  Speaking,  pp.  72-118. 
Lewis,  E.  H.  Specimens  of  the  Forms  of  Discourse,  pp.  335-64. 
Nutter,  C.  R.,  and  others.  Specimens  of  Prose  Composition,  pp.  92- 

115. 
Perry,  F.  M.  Introductory  Course  in  Exposition,  pp.  139-207. 
Saintsbury,  G.  E.  B.  A  History  of  Criticism. 


248  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

Winchester,  C.  T.  Some  Principles  of  Literary  Criticism. 
Worsfold,  W.  Basil.    The  Principles  of  Criticism. 

A  LIST  OF  NON-FICTION  BOOKS  FOR  OUTSIDE 

READING 

America  To-day.  William  Archer. 

The  Land  of  Little  Rain.  Mary  Austin. 

Fame  and  Fiction.  Arnold  Bennett. 

Literary  Taste  and  How  to  Form  It.  Arnold  Bennett. 

From  a  College  Window.  A.  C.  Benson. 

The  Upton  Letters.  A.  C.  Benson. 

Pepacton.  John  Burroughs. 

Riverby.  John  Burroughs. 

Wake-Robin.  John  Burroughs. 

Winter  Sunshine.  John  Burroughs. 

Alarms  and  Discursions.  G.  K  Chesterton. 

All  Things  Considered.  G.  K.  Chesterton. 

Heretics.  G.  K.  Chesterton. 

Tremendous  Trifles.  G.  K.  Chesterton. 

What's  Wrong  with  the  World.  G.  K.  Chesterton. 

England  and  the  English.  Price  Collier. 

Germany  and  the  Germans.  Price  Collier. 

The  West  in  the  East.  Price  Collier. 

By  the  Christmas  Fire.  Samuel  M.  Crothers. 

The  Gentle  Reader.  Samuel  M.  Crothers. 

The  Pardoner's  Wallet.  Samuel  M.  Crothers. 

Letters  from  a  Chinese  Official.  G.  L.  Dickinson. 

Religion  and  Immortality.  G.  L.  Dickinson. 

A  Traveler  at  Forty.  Theodore  Dreiser. 

The  Private  Papers  of  Henry  Ryecroft.  George  Gissing 

Adventures  in  Contentment.  David  Grayson. 

Adventures  in  Friendship.  David  Grayson. 

The  Intellectual  Life.  P.  G.  Hamerton. 

Imaginary  Interviews.  William  Dean  Howells. 

Italian  Journeys.  William  Dean  Howells. 

Literature  and  Life.  William  Dean  Howells. 

Venetian  Life.  William  Dean  Howells. 

Memories  and  Studies.  William  James. 

Essays  of  Elia.  Charles  Lamb. 

Fireside  and  Sunshine.  E.  V.  Lucas. 


EXPOSITION  249 

American  Ideals.  Hamilton  W.  Mabie. 

Backgrounds  of  Literature.  Hamilton  W.  Mabie. 

My  Study  Fire.  Hamilton  W.  Mabie. 

The  American  of  the  Future.  Brander  Matthews. 

Aspects  of  Fiction.  Brander  Matthews. 

Inquiries  and  Opinions.  Brander  Matthews. 

My  First  Summer  in  the  Sierra.  John  Muir. 

Our  National  Parks.  John  Muir. 

The  Provincial  American.  Meredith  Nicholson. 

The  Old  Dominion.  Thomas  Nelson  Page. 

The  Old  South.  Thomas  Nelson  Page. 

Our  House  and  the  People  in  It.  Elizabeth  Robins  Pennell. 

The  American  Mind.   Bliss  Perry. 

Americans  and  Others.  Agnes  Repplier. 

Books  and  Men.  Agnes  Repplier. 

The  Fireside  Sphinx.    Agnes  Repplier. 

The  Face  of  the  Fields.  Dallas  Lore  Sharp. 

The  Fall  of  the  Year.  Dallas  Lore  Sharp. 

The  Lay  of  the  Land.  Dallas  Lore  Sharp. 

Dreamihorp.  Alexander  Smith. 

Familiar  Studies  of  Men  and  Books.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson, 

An  Inland  Voyage.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

Silverado  Squatters.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

Travels  with  a  Donkey.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

Virginibus  Puerisque.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

Walden.   Henry  D.  Thoreau. 

Fisherman's  Luck.   Henry  Van  Dyke. 

Little  Rivers.  Henry  Van  Dyke. 

Nature  for  its  Own  Sake.  John  Van  Dyke. 

The  Cabin.  Stewart  Edward  White. 

The  Forest.  Stewart  Edward  White. 

The  Mountains.  Stewart  Edward  White. 

The  Pass.  Stewart  Edward  White. 

Mere  Literature.  Woodrow  Wilson. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Explain  in  about  one  hundred  words  the  purpose  of  expository 
writing. 

2.  Indicate  the  chief  differences  in  aim  and  in  method  between 
description  and  exposition. 


250  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

3.  Prove  that  in  practice  exposition,  description,  and  narration 
are  very  closely  related.   Give  concrete  examples. 

4.  By  what  means  may  written  exposition  be  supplemented  for 
the  sake  of  clearness  and  emphasis? 

5.  Why  is  careful  and  effective  arrangement  of  parts  necessary  in 
expository  writing? 

6.  Indicate  the  importance  of  introductions,  transitions,  sum- 
maries, and  conclusions  in  exposition?  Will  their  use  depend 
at  all  upon  the  fact  that  the  ideas  are  to  be  spoken  or  written? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  subjects  whose  explanation  would  involve  the 
use  of  diagrams  or  illustrations. 

8.  Write  upon  some  subject  chosen  from  each  of  the  follow- 
ing lists.  Pay  special  attention  to  accuracy  of  information, 
arrangement  of  details,  and  perfect  clearness  of  explanation. 
Decide  whether  you  will  use  diagrams.  Compare  your  work 
with  that  in  an  encyclopedia.  Could  your  explanation  be 
improved  either  in  quantity  of  information  or  in  lucidity  of 
presentation? 

A 

A  well-arranged  kitchen;  a  comfortable  living-room;  a 
modern  bathroom;  a  pleasant  schoolroom;  a  clubroom;  an 
office;  a  grocery  store;  a  sanitary  butcher-shop. 


A  dish-washer;  telephone;  telegraph;  electric  bell;  telescope; 
electric  heater  or  toaster;  electric  fan;  aeroplane;  balloon;  para- 
chute; safe;  gramophone;  dictograph;  automatic  piano- 
player. 

C 

Typewriting;  copying  letters;  using  a  mimeograph;  baking 
cake;  washing  dishes;  keeping  accounts;  using  the  telephone; 
taking  care  of  a  garden;  paddling  a  canoe;  rowing  a  boat;  using 
a  sewing  machine;  registering  letters;  depositing  or  drawing 
money  in  a  bank;  using  a  stereopticon;  heliographing;  sending 
a  telegram;  making  a  block  print;  drawing  a  book  from  the 
library. 

D 

Elevator;  automobile;  motor  launch;  gas  engine;  grain 
elevator;  street  car;  rock  drill;  steam  shovel;  moving-picture 


EXPOSITION  251 

machine;  wireless  station;  cash  register;  life-saving  station; 
time  clock;  stop  watch;  fire  alarm;  fire  station;  electric  meter; 
brewery;  bakery;  speedometer;  addressing  machine;  ther- 
mometer; barometer;  arc  lamp;  linotype;  monotype;  printing 
press;  slot  machine;  electric  range. 

E 

Making  paper;  canning  vegetables;  preserving  fruit;  print- 
ing a  newspaper,  book,  or  circular;  installing  an  electric  sign; 
running  a  soda  fountain;  manufacturing  textiles,  steel  rails, 
bookcases,  sugar,  leather,  feathers,  shoes,  etc.;  making  a  dress; 
pasteurizing  milk;  making  slides  for  a  stereopticon  or  micro- 
scope; enlarging  a  photograph;  glass  blowing;  coal  mining; 
drilling  an  oil  well;  irrigating  a  farm;  steering  an  ocean  liner; 
finding  a  ship's  position  at  sea. 

3.  DEFINITION 

1.  Clearness,  definiteness,  and  precision  are  necessary  in 
speaking  and  in  writing  because  the  accuracy  and  vividness 
of  the  ideas  expressed  depend  almost  entirely  upon  the 
words  used.  It  is  only  comparatively  rarely  that  we  can 
supplement  our  spoken  words  by  significant  gestures  or  our 
written  words  by  appropriate  illustrations.  The  greatest 
possible  care  must  be  taken  by  the  writer  to  say  exactly 
what  he  means.  Precision  and  exactness  must  precede 
grace  and  ease  of  expression. 

2.  Ideas  and  the  words  that  represent  them  should  be 
precise  and  definite  for  the  following  reasons :  — 

1.  The  daily  experience  of  the  ordinary  person  is  con- 
cerned with  concrete  things,  with  specific  actions, 
with  definite  ideas,  and  with  clearly  determined 
ends  or  purposes. 

2.  Efficiency  in  communication  with  others  depends 
upon  definiteness  in  thought  and  expression.  We 
must  say  what  we  mean  as  well  as  mean  what  we 


252  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

say.    Accuracy  is  essential  to  truth;  vagueness 
leads  to  misunderstanding. 

3.  In  discussions,  in  arguments,  and  in  legal  matters, 
limitation  and  definition  of  terms  is  absolutely 
necessary. 

4.  In  descriptive  and  narrative  writing  force  of  im- 
pression is  greatly  increased  by  precision  in  the 
choice  of  words. 

3.  Ideas  are  vague  for  the  following  reasons:  — 

1.  They  are  strange  and  unfamiliar  to  the  reader. 

2.  They  are  too  large  in  their  implication  or  too  unre- 
stricted in  meaning. 

3.  There  is  a  possibility  of  a  different  interpretation 
or  a  different  emphasis  being  given  to  the  term  by 
different  people. 

4.  A  term  may  have  become  confused  with  another, 
owing  to  constant  lack  of  precision  in  popular 
thought. 

5.  Some  ideas  are  so  intangible,  so  difficult  of  rep- 
resentation, or  so  complicated  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  submit  them  to  the  process  of  exami- 
nation that  results  in  definition. 

6.  In  translating  from  a  foreign  language  vagueness 
occasionally  results  from  a  lack  of  coincidence  in 
meaning  and  from  the  scarcity  of  exact  synonyms. 

4.  Ideas  may  be  made  definite  in  these  ways:  — 

1.  By  a  logical  definition,  which  mentions  the  general 
class  to  which  the  object  or  idea  to  be  defined 
belongs  and  adds  the  particular  individual  differ- 
ences that  distinguish  that  object  or  idea  from 
others  in  the  same  class.  This  process  consists  of 
realizing  what  are  the  essential  and  distinguishing 
features  of  the  idea  defined,  or  rejecting  all  that  is 


DEFINITION  253 

not  absolutely  essential  to  the  conception,  and  of 
expressing  the  resultant  in  language  that  is  con- 
cise, precise,  and  impossible  of  misinterpretation. 

2.  By  a  process  of  synthesis,  which  consists  of  starting 
with  a  number  of  vague  and  unconnected  ideas; 
by  careful  experimental  rejection,  selection,  and 
combination;  by  closely  relating  these  ideas;  and 
by  finally  bringing  them  together  into  a  construc- 
tive or  compact  definition  or  generalization.  This 
method  is  largely  that  of  intellectual  progress  and 
of  scientific  discovery. 

3.  By  a  process  of  analysis,  which  consists  of  starting 
out  with  a  definite  idea,  concept,  proposition,  or 
principle,  and  of  breaking  that  idea  up  into  its  com- 
ponent parts,  and  of  indicating  the  implications  or 
results.  This  method  is  frequently  made  use  of  in 
teaching,  investigation,  discussion,  and  criticism. 

4.  By  means  of  contrast  between  ideas  that  are  par- 
tially related  and  partially  distinguished.  This 
method  is  positive,  in  so  far  as  it  indicates  resem- 
blances, and  negative,  in  so  far  as  it  emphasizes 
differences.  In  language  it  involves  a  knowledge  of 
the  relations  of  synonyms. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Look  up  the  term  "definition"  in  the  dictionary.  What  is  the 
fundamental  meaning?  What  does  the  verb  "to  define" 
mean? 

2.  Read  the  chapter  on  " Definition "  in  a  textbook  of  "Logic." 
What  new  ideas  does  it  give  you? 

3.  Define  the  following  terms  first  in  a  popular  way,  and  then 
try  to  make  a  strictly  logical  definition  of  them.  What  are  the 
chief  differences  between  the  two  definitions?  Under  what 
circumstances  would  the  writer  have  to  make  use  of  the 
second  method?  "motor,"  "man,"  "game,"  "play," 
"work,"  "humor,"  "drama,"  "beauty." 


254  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

4.  Note  instances  in  which  you  have  misunderstood  an  author 
because  of  (a)  vagueness  in  his  manner  of  expressing  his 
ideas,  (b)  vagueness  in  your  own  thoughts. 

5.  Choose  a  page  in  a  textbook  of  philosophy  and  select  the 
words  that  do  not  convey  to  your  mind  a  picture  of  a  thing. 
Do  you  find  any  general  resemblances  among  these  words? 

6.  Select  from  the  page  of  a  scientific  textbook  the  words  that 
imply  definite  tilings.  How  are  these  ideas  made  definite? 

7.  Note  instances  of  discussions  that  arise  in  your  daily  experi- 
ence because  ideas  are  not  defined  or  because  two  people  give 
different  interpretations  to  the  same  word. 

8.  Show  how  the  processes  of  analysis  and  of  synthesis  are 
really  complementary. 

9.  Select  from  your  own  experience  several  instances  in  which 
an  idea  has  been  made  more  definite  by  either  of  these  two 
methods. 

10.  Show,  by  comparing  the  range  of  meaning  of  two  synonyms, 
that  definition  by  synonyms  may  lead  to  a  fallacy. 

11.  Try  to  define  the  "  Honor  System"  and  note  how  the  ideas  of 
your  classmates  differ  from  yours. 

12.  Indicate  the  essential  difference  between  closely  related 
words  such  as  "work"  and  "labor,"  "wit"  and  "humor," 
"enjoyment"  and  "pleasure." 

13.  Is  it  harder  to  give  a  definition  of  a  thing,  a  process,  or  an 
idea? 

4.  ARGUMENTATION 

1.  Purpose. 

The  chief  aim  of  argument,  as  a  form  of  writing  or 

-    speaking,  is,  by  proving  facts  and  answering  actual  or 

anticipated  objections,  to  convince  a  reader  or  an 

audience  that  some  statement  is  true  and  that  some 

specific  attitude  or  action  is  advisable  or  necessary. 

2.  Relation  to  other  forms  of  writing. 

Argumentation  has  constant  use  for  exposition,  but 
also  involves  for  special  reasons  description  and  nar- 
ration. It  differs  from  mere  exposition  in  having  a 
somewhat  different  problem.    Exposition  seeks  to 


ARGUMENTATION  255 

make  the  unknown  known;  argumentation  tries  to 
remove  uncertainty  and  unbelief.  It  presupposes  dif- 
ference or  opposition  of  opinion.  It  has  not  only, 
therefore,  to  explain  clearly,  but  also  to  convince 
thoroughly.  This  process  of  conviction  involves  two 
steps :  — 

1.  Negative:  the  removal,  by  critical  disproof,  of  the 
hostile  or  antipathetic  attitude  or  conception  on 
the  part  of  the  audience. 

2.  Positive:  the  substitution  of  a  new  point  of  view, 
conception,  state  of  mind,  etc. 

3.  Materials  of  argumentation. 

1.  Disputed  questions  regarding  any  phase  of  human 
thought,  feeling,  or  action.  The  essence  of  the 
argument  is  generally  expressed  in  the  form  of  a 
proposition  which  has  to  be  justified  or  disproved. 

2.  Habitual  attitudes  of  human  thought  with  regard 
to  such  questions.  There  are  three  conventional 
positions:  (a)  Pro,  or  in  favor;  (6)  Neutral,  or  indif- 
ferent; (c)  Con,  or  hostile.  The  problem  here  in- 
volved is  one  of  Conviction. 

3.  Human  emotions  are  involved  in  most  differences 
of  opinion.  The  problem  here  is  one  of  Persuasion, 
and  includes  the  technique  of  public  speaking. 

4.  The  method  of  Argumentation  has  borrowed  some 
of  its  material  and  technique  from:  (a)  Logical 
analysis  of  the  process  of  thought;  (b)  the  proce- 
dure of  legal  evidence;  (c)  psychological  study  of 
the  effect  of  suggestion,  the  influence  of  language, 
the  psychology  of  the  crowd. 

4.  The  scope  of  argumentation. 

Argumentation  is  made  use  of  continually  in  daily 
life,  public  and  private,  in  isolated  syllogisms  and 


256  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

inductions,  public  discussions,  academic  and  parlia- 
mentary debates,  lawsuits,  lectures,  sermons,  theologi- 
cal and  scientific  controversy,  and  in  all  wri+ing  or 
speech  where  the  principal  object  is  to  convince 
another  person. 

The  subjects  may  be  actual  concrete  cases  that 
have  happened  in  daily  life,  or  they  may  be  supposed 
or  hypothetical  cases  that  may  occur  in  the  future. 
The  result,  as  far  as  conviction  is  concerned,  ranges 
between  scientific  certainty  on  the  one  hand  and 
provisional  belief  on  the  other. 

5.  Two  kinds  of  reasoning. 

1.  Inductive.  This  method  is  the  means  of  arriving  at 
new  knowledge.  It  involves  the  combination  of  a 
number  of  particulars  into  a  general  statement, 
principle,  or  law,  which  is  true  of  all  the  particulars 
upon  which  it  is  based  and  of  all  others  to  which  it 
may  be  applied,  provided  the  latter  resemble  the 
former  in  essentials.  The  method  involves  three 
stages:  (a)  Observation;  (b)  Hypothesis;  (c)  Verifi- 
cation. 

2.  Deductive.  This  method  involves  the  application  of 
a  recognized  principle  or  an  accepted  generaliza- 
tion to  a  particular  doubtful  case,  and  the  asser- 
tion or  denial  of  the  relation  between  the  two. 
Deductive  reasoning  involves  the  use  of  the  Syl- 
logism, which  consists  of  three  terms:  Major 
Premise,  Minor  Premise,  and  Conclusion.  In  this 
connection  it  should  be  noted  that  (a)  only  three 
terms  are  involved,  one  of  which  must  be  common 
to  the  major  and  minor  premises,  and  two  of  which 
must  be  found  in  the  conclusion;  (6)  if  the  premises 
are  admitted,  the  conclusion  must  follow;  (c)  the 
Syllogism  is  not  always  expressed  in  complete  form 


ARGUMENTATION  257 

and  any  of  its  parts  may  be  only  implied;  (d)  the 
Syllogism  does  not  present  new  facts,  and  can 
apply  only  to  a  new  particular  instance  some  gen- 
eral principle  already  known. 

The  student  should  realize  the  limitations  of  logical  proof 
and  the  difficulty  of  making  universal  inclusive  generalizations 
amounting  to  the  certainty  of  scientific  law  in  the  case  of  social 
and  economic  phenomena  where  the  elements  of  human  emo- 
tion and  action  enter  in  as  modifying  conditions.  A  general 
tendency  or  a  high  probability  is  often  all  that  can  be  asserted 

6.  Evidence  and  proof. 

1.  Proof:  — 

(a)  The  mere  counter-assertion  is  not  sufficient. 
(6)  The  nature  of  evidence. 

(1)  Testimonial  or  direct;  authority;  experts. 

(2)  Circumstantial  or  indirect;  general  pro< 
cesses : — 

(a)  From  known  cause  to  probable  effect. 
(ft)  From  known  effect  to  probable  cause, 
(y)  Argument  from  resemblance  or  analogy. 

2.  Refutation: — 

(a)  Necessity  of  (l)  ability  for  keen  and  concen- 
trated thought;  (2)  realization  of  the  oppon- 
ent's side  of  the  question. 

(b)  There  are  two  main  ways  of  destroying  the 
force  of  an  argument: — 

(1)  Show  that  it  is  based  on  insufficient  or  in- 
correct evidence. 

(2)  Prove  that  there  is  a  fallacy  in  the  method 
of  proof  or  argument. 

7.  Fallacies. 

1.  Reasoning,  and  argument,  is  sometimes  fallacious 
because  the  observer  of  a  fact  or  an  event  has  not 


258  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

perceived  or  interpreted  his  sensations  correctly. 
Illusions. 
2.  There  are  a  number  of  errors  in  reasoning  which 
come  from  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  logical  thought. 
The  chief  of  these  are :  — 

(a)  Ambiguity  of  terms. 

(b)  Begging  the  question. 

(c)  Ignoring  the  question  or  arguing  beside  the 
point. 

(d)  False  relation  between  cause  and  effect. 

(e)  False  attribution  of  qualities  of  part  to  whole, 
or  vice  versa. 

(/)   Hasty  generalization. 

8.  The  brief. 

1.  The  brief  should  consist  of  three  parts:  (a)  Intro- 
duction; (6)  Proof  or  discussion;  (c)  Conclusion. 

2.  Ideas  or  arguments  should  be  arranged  in  the  form 
of  headings  and  subheadings. 

3.  Ideas  and  arguments  should  be  stated  in  the  form 
of  single,  definite,  and  complete  propositions. 

4.  Headings  and  subheadings  should  be  indicated  by 
figures  and  letters. 

5.  The  Introduction  should  indicate  the  speaker's 
position  and  define  the  main  issues. 

6.  The  Proof  or  discussion  should  develop  and  sub- 
stantiate the  main  issues  indicated  in  the  Intro- 
duction. 

7.  A  refutation  should  indicate  exactly  what  is  to  be 
disproved.  Omit  statements  that  do  not  tend  to 
prove  the  issue  immediately  in  question. 

8.  The  Conclusion  should  summarize  in  precise  terms 
the  essence  of  the  main  argument,  and  should  end 
with  the  denial  or  the  assertion  of  the  proposition 
in  question. 


ARGUMENTATION  259 

9.  General  suggestions. 

1.  Define  the  issue.  Narrow  your  question  to  a  form 
of  statement  that  shall  be  absolutely  definite.  Let 
your  discussion  be  one  of  facts  rather  than  one  of 
words. 

2.  Make  a  statement  of  common  ground  as  a  basis  ol 
departure. 

3.  If  the  problem  has  already  been  discussed,  indicate 
the  results  arrived  at  and  the  reasons  for  recon- 
sideration. Show  the  immediate  or  future  signifi- 
cance of  the  question. 

4.  Determine  the  issue  which  really  will  decide  the 
discussion. 

5.  Let  your  general  process  be :  — 

(a)  The  question  and  its  significance. 

(b)  The  choice  of  one  specific  attitude  in  prefer- 
ence to  others. 

(c)  The  justification  of  the  choice. 

6.  Read  widely  and  intelligently. 

7.  Think  clearly  and  definitely  at  every  point. 

8.  Put  yourself  in  the  place  of  your  opponent. 

9.  Keep  references  to  facts  that  you  will  need  in  your 
discussion. 

10.  Do  not  let  your  feelings  on  a  question  blind  you  to 
the  other  side  or  bias  your  judgment. 

REFERENCES 

Baldwin,  C.  S.  Composition  Oral  and  Written,  pp.  172-232. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.   College  Manual  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  60-126. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.   Writing  and  Speaking,  pp.  222-325. 
Brewster,  W.  T.  English  Composition  and  Style,  pp.  364-424. 
Brewster,  W.  T.   Writing  English  Prose,  pp.  103-20. 
Brown  and  Barnes.    The  Art  of  Writing  English,  pp.  258-302. 
Canby,  H.  S.,  and  others.   English  Composition  in  Theory  and  Prac~ 

tice,  pp.  167-254. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.  Model  English  Prose.  Selections,  pp.  289-339. 


260  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

Carpenter,  G.  R.  Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  379-92. 
Duncan,  C.  S.,  and  others.   Prose  Specimens,  pp.  320-70. 
Esenwein,  J.  Berg.   How  to  Attract  and  Hold  an  Audience. 
Foster,  W.  T.   Essentials  of  Exposition  and  Argument. 
Fulton,  Edward.   English  Prose  Composition,  pp.  111-84. 
Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold.    Manual  of  Composition  and 

Rhetoric,  pp.  211-66. 
Genung,  J.  F.   Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  407-74. 
Genung,  J.  F.    The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  597-662. 
Grose,  H.  B.  Specimens  of  English  Composition,  pp.  183-305. 
Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Composition. 
Hill,  A.  S.   Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  327-400. 
Hyslop,  J.  H.   Logic  and  Argument. 
Ketcham,  V.  A.    The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Argumentation  and 

Debate. 
Lewis,  E.  H.  Specimens  of  the  Forms  of  Discourse,  pp.  233-333. 
Linn,  J.  W.  Illustrative  Examples  of  English  Composition,  pp.  81- 

136. 
Linn,  J.  W.   The  Essentials  of  English  Composition,  pp.  121-45. 
Newcomer,  A.  G.  Practical  Course  in  English  Composition,  pp.  137- 

203. 
Newcomer  and  Seward.  Rhetoric  in  Practice,  pp.  63-82. 
Nutter,  C.  R.,  and  others.  Specimens  of  Prose  Composition,  pp.  116- 

231. 
Percival  and  Jelliffe.  Specimens  of  Exposition  and  Argument,  pp. 

150-340. 
Rankin  and  Brumm.   Materials  for  the  Study  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  69-100. 
Stebbins,  C.  M.  A  Progressive  Course  in  English,  pp.  90-131. 
Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  332-47. 
Webster,  W.  F.  English  for  Secondary  Schools. 

5.  BIOGRAPHY 
I.  Purposes. 

1.  To  leave  a  complete  and  accurate  account  of  the 
experiences  of  an  individual  for  his  relatives,  de- 
scendants, or  friends. 

2.  In  the  case  of  a  man  of  note  in  the  arts  or  the 
sciences,  or  in  public  life,  to  leave  a  record  that  will 
be  of  general  interest  and  of  historical  value. 

3.  Occasionally  to  disprove  some  charge,  to  vindicate 
the  writer,  to  justify  some  action  or  belief,  or  to 


BIOGRAPHY  261 

demonstrate  the  necessity  or  rationality  of  the 
actions  or  efforts  of  some  individual. 
4.  Merely  personal  or  selfish  reasons,  such  as  the 
gratification  of  personal  vanity,  the  desire  for 
publicity,  etc. 

2.  Terms  used. 

The  following  distinctions  with  regard  to  the  use  of 
terms  should  be  observed :  — 

Biography:  a  book  of  which  the  subject  is  a  person. 
Bibliography:  a  list  of  books  or  articles  on  a  subject  or 

individual. 
Biographer:  a  person  who  writes  a  biography. 

Biographee:  a  person  about  whom  a  biography  is 

written. 
Autobiography:  a  book  written  by  a  person  about 

his  own  life. 

3.  Materials. 

The  materials  of  biography  may  include  such 
items  or  topics  as  these :  — 

Ancestry,  family  history,  and  relationships;  un- 
usual or  striking  experiences  which  have  had  a 
marked  or  continuous  influence;  actions  or  attitudes 
of  mind  which  reveal  character;  influence  of  environ- 
ment and  of  change  of  place ;  opinions  of  other  people 
about  biographee;  desires,  hopes,  likes  and  dislikes; 
influence  exerted  upon  other  people;  effect  of  friends, 
acquaintances,  books,  etc.;  education,  at  home,  with 
tutors,  at  schools,  college,  etc.;  education  out  of 
school;  recreation,  sports,  and  amusements;  travel; 
vacations;  occupation  or  profession;  religious  devel- 
opment; hopes,  expectations,  ambitions,  and  plans 
for  the  future. 


262  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

4.  Methods. 

1.  The  nature  of  the  biography  will  depend  largely  on 
variations  in  the  following  factors :  — 

(a)  Purposes  of  the  writer. 
(6)  Class  of  readers  in  mind. 

(c)  Access  to  first-hand  sources  of  information. 

(d)  Scale  of  biography :  sketch  or  complete. 

2.  The  point  of  view  of  the  writer  may  be  either:  — 

(a)  Impersonal,  scientific,  detached,  judicial;  or 

(b)  Personal,  individual,  and  colored  by  his  feel- 
ings and  attitude. 

3.  It  is  possible  to  use  the  following  methods :  — 
(a)  The  purely  chronological  method,  which  has 

the  advantage  of  having  its  material  already 
arranged  in  a  definite  order;  but  which  has  the 
disadvantage  of  separating  topics  which  are 
closely  related  in  subject  though  not  consecu- 
tive in  time. 
(6)  The  purely  topical  method,  which  has  the 
advantage  of  considering  a  topic,  subject,  or 
aspect  completely  and  without  the  distraction 
of  irrelevant  matter;  but  which  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  occasionally  disarranging  the 
chronological  outline  of  a  life  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  account  is  lacking  in  sequence  and 
coherence. 

(c)  A  combination  of  these  two  methods,  which 
has  the  advantage  of  emphasizing  the  good 
points  and  of  minimizing  the  disadvantages  of 
both. 

4.  As  a  regulating  principle  in  the  use  of  his  material, 
the  writer  should  constantly  bear  in  mind  his  pur- 
pose, and  should  remember  whether  he  is  more 
interested  in :  — 


BIOGRAPHY  263 

(a)  giving  a  complete   account    of   a  series   of 

events;  or 
(6)  indicating  the  development  of  personality  and 

character. 

5.  The  writer  should  decide  whether  minuteness  and 
completeness,  or  suggestiveness  and  brief  reference 
are  desirable  with  regard  to  special  incidents  or  to 
the  whole  treatment. 

6.  The  relative  proportion  of  parts  should  not  be  for- 
gotten, and  the  writer  should  constantly  ask  him- 
self:— 

(a)  What  can  be  omitted? 

(6)  What  ought  to  be  emphasized? 

(c)  Is  this  detail  consistent  with  the  general  pur- 
pose? 

(d)  Has  this  particular  topic  received  too  elabor- 
ate or  too  scanty  treatment  compared  with 
other  topics  and  with  the  whole? 

7.  As  a  general  rule  the  following  material  should  be 
omitted :  — 

(a)  Trivial  or  uninteresting  events  which  are 
merely  accidental  or  transitory,  and  which 
have  no  influence  upon  character  or  life. 

(6)  Details  of  daily  routine  which  are  common  to 
the  experience  of  all. 

(c)  Matters  which  are  of  the  nature  of  libel  or 
scandal. 

8.  The  attitude  of  the  writer  toward  the  value  and 
accuracy  of  his  material  and  toward  the  truth  of 
his  statements  should  depend  upon  the  following 
considerations :  — 

(a)  Sincerity  of  purpose  and  fidelity  to  fact  are 

cardinal  virtues  in  biographers. 
(6)  Distinction  should  be  made  between  the  value 


264  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

of  personal  acquaintance,  documents,  diaries, 
letters,  newspaper  reports,  traditions,  reported 
facts  and  conversations,  and  the  testimony  of 
persons  likely  to  be  prejudiced  against  or  in 
favor  of  the  biographee. 

(c)  Material  should  be  tested,  compared,  and  veri- 
fied with  scrupulous  care  and  with  scientific 
accuracy. 

(d)  Care  should  be  taken  lest  the  personal  attitude 
of  the  writer  toward  any  experience,  individ- 
ual, institution,  or  party,  unconsciously  influ- 
ence the  presentation  or  the  interpretation  of 
facts. 

(e)  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  secure  all  the 
available  material. 

9.  For  the  sake  of  interest,  clearness,  and  vividness, 
bear  in  mind  the  following  suggestions :  — 
(a)  Portraits,    illustrations,    diagrams,   and   fac- 
similes should  be  used. 
(6)  Quotations   should    be    given   from    original 
sources,  such  as  documents,  records,  diaries, 
letters,  etc. 

(c)  Remember  that  you  are  dealing  with  human 
beings  and  are  writing  for  human  beings. 

(d)  Strive  to  give  unity  to  your  work  by  emphasiz- 
ing the  element  of  personality. 

5.  Style. 

1.  Simplicity  and  straightforwardness  are  the  most 
desirable  qualities. 

2.  In  the  case  of  formal,  impersonal  biographies,- a 
more  formal  and  dignified  style  is  usual  than  in  the 
case  of  an  autobiography,  where  a  more  personal 
tone  and  a  greater  intimacy  of  expression  are 
allowable. 


BIOGRAPHY  265 

3.  Except  in  the  case  of  autobiography,  the  writer 
should  keep  himself  entirely  out  of  the  work,  unless 
he  himself  is  of  note  and  is  personally  concerned  in 
some  of  the  incidents  related. 

4.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  keep  the  account 
full  of  vitality,  vividness,  and  human  interest. 

BIOGRAPHIES 

Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich.   Ferris  Greenslet. 

Jane  Austen.  F.  W.  Cornish. 

Edwin  Booth.  E.  B.  Grossman. 

Charlotte  Bronte.  Elizabeth  Gaskell. 

Charlotte  Bronte  and  her  Sisters.  C.  K.  Shorter. 

The  Three  Brontes.  May  Sinclair. 

Charles  Dickens.  G.  K.  Chesterton. 

My  Father  as  I  Recall  Him.  M.  Dickens. 

Charles  Dickens.  P.  H.  Fitzgerald. 

George  Eliot.  J.  W.  Cross. 

Fabre,  Poet  of  Science.  C.  V.  Legros. 

The  Many-Sided  Franklin.  P.  L.  Ford. 

Garrick  and  his  Circle.  F.  M.  Parsons. 

Story  of  Gladstone's  Life.  Justin  McCarthy. 

Oliver  Goldsmith.  Austin  Dobson. 

Oliver  Goldsmith.  F.  F.  Moore. 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne  and  his  Wife.  Julian  Hawthorne. 

Life  and  Letters  of  Lafcadio  Hearn.  Elizabeth  Bisland. 

Life  and  Letters  of  T.  H.  Huxley.  Leonard  Huxley. 

Samuel  Johnson.  James  Boswell. 

Charles  Lamb.  E.  V.  Lucas. 

La  Salle.  Francis  Parkman. 

Lee  the  American.  Gamaliel  Bradford,  Jr. 

Robert  E.  Lee,  Man  and  Soldier.  T.  N.  Page. 

Short  Life  of  Lincoln.  J.  G.  Nicolay. 

Abraham  Lincoln.  Carl  Schurz. 

Lincoln.  I.  M.  Tarbell. 

James  Russell  Lowell.  Ferris  Greenslet. 

William  Morris.  J.  W.  Mackail. 

William  Morris.  Alfred  Noyes. 

Life  of  Napoleon.  J.  H.  Rose. 


266  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

Margaret  Ogilvy.  J.  M.  Barrie. 

Alice  Freeman  Palmer.  G.  H.  Palmer. 

Edgar  Allan  Poe.  G.  E.  Woodberry. 

Life  of  Auguste  Rodin.  Frederick  Lawton. 

Shakespeare's  Life  and  Work.  Sidney  L.  Lee. 

Robert  Louis  Stevenson.  Graham  Balfour. 

Mary  Stuart.  F.  A.  MacCunn. 

My  Mark  Twain.  W.  D.  Howells. 

Walt  Whitman.  Bliss  Perry. 

COLLECTED   BIOGRAPHIES 

Short  Lives  of  Great  Men.  W.  F.  Burnside  and  A.  S.  Owen. 

Six  Oxford  Thinkers.   E.  A.  R.  Cecil. 

Representative  Biographies  of  English  Men  of  Letters.  C.  T. 
Copeland  and  F.  W.  C.  Hersey. 

Great  English  Poets.   Julian  Hill. 

Lives  of  Great  English  Writers.  W.  S.  Hinchman  and  F.  B. 
Gummere. 

Great  English  Novelists.   Holbrook  Jackson. 

Great  Englishmen  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  S.  L.  Lee. 

Two  Russian  Reformers.  J.  A.  T.  Lloyd. 

The  Four  Georges.  W.  M.  Thackeray. 

AUTOBIOGRAPHIES 

Twenty  Years  at  Hull  House.  Jane  Addams. 

The  Promised  Land.  Mary  Antin. 

Reminiscences  of  my  Childhood  and  Youth.  Georg  Brandeb. 

My  Long  Life.   Mary  Cowden  Clarke. 

Father  and  Son.  E.  W.  Gosse. 

Literary  Friends  and  Acquaintances.  W.  D.  Howells. 

From  the  Bottom  Up.  A.  F.  Irvine. 

Autobiography.  Joseph  Jefferson. 

The  Story  of  My  Life.  Helen  Keller. 

A  New  England  Girlhood.   Lucy  Larcom. 

A  Chronicle  of  Friendships.  W.  H.  Low. 

Life  on  the  Stage.  Clara  Morris. 

The  Story  of  My  Boyhood  and  Youth.  John  Muir. 

Diary.  Samuel  Pepys. 

The  Making  of  an  American.  J.  A.  Riis. 


NARRATION  267 

Autobiography.  Theodore  Roosevelt. 
Autobiography.  Sir  H.  M.  Stanley. 
Against  the  Current.   E.  A.  Steiner. 
Vailima  Letters.   Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 
Autobiography  of  a  Journalist.  W.  J.  Stillman. 
The  Story  of  My  Life.  Ellen  Terry. 
Chapters  from  a  Life.  E.  S.  (Phelps)  Ward. 
Up  from  Slavery.  B.  T.  Washington. 
My  Life  in  China  and  America.  Wing  Yung. 

6.  NARRATION 

1 .  Definition:  Narration  is  the  recounting  of  a  series  of 
svents. 

In  narration  the  action  or  event  is  the  indispen- 
sable element.  Narration  is,  however,  of  two  kinds : — 
(a)  Narration  without  plot. 
(6)  Narration  with  plot. 

Narration  without  plot,  as  the  name  implies,  is  the  mere 
account  of  a  series  of  detached  events,  without  that  arrange- 
ment which  makes  for  concentration  at  one  point,  —  that  is, 
without  a  focus,  a  climax,  or  a  denouement.  Narration  with 
plot  is  the  recounting  of  a  series  of  events  in  such  order  that 
they  work  toward  a  definite  focus,  or,  in  other  words,  con- 
tribute to  a  denouement. 

2.  The  relation  of  narration  to  other  forms  of  writing. 

1.  Description. 

Narration  and  description  are  in  many  ways 
closely  allied.  Narrative-description  combines 
detached  events  (devoid  of  plot)  with  pictures  of 
the  scenes  involved;  description  is  the  predominat- 
ing element. 

Descriptive  narration  usually  has  a  slight  plot,  but  it  de- 
pends chiefly  on  the  description  for  its  interest.  (See  A  Day  at 
Laguerre's,  by  F.  Hopkinson  Smith ;  The  Country  of  the  Pointed 
Firs,  by  Sarah  Orne  Jewett.)  In  any  piece  of  narration,  as  the 
short  story  or  the  novel,  description  is  an  inevitable  concomi- 


268  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

tant  of  the  recounting  of  events:  it  is  necessary  in  order  that 
the  reader  may  visualize  the  action. 

2.  Exposition. 

Ordinarily,  narration  has  little  connection  with  ex- 
position, except  as  fragments  of  explanation  are 
interpolated,  in  order  to  make  situations  clear. 
There  is,  however,  a  modern  type  of  analytic  narra- 
tion (vide  the  stories  of  Henry  James  and  George 
Meredith)  in  which  exposition  of  motive  or  mental 
state  forms  an  important  part. 

3.  The  drama. 

The  drama  is  essentially  a  narrative;  hence  many 
of  the  principles  underlying  the  theory  of  narra- 
tion apply  equally  well  to  that  of  dramatic  compo- 
sition.   (See  Section  8.    The  Drama.) 

3«  The  forms  which  narration  takes. 

1.  Narration  without  plot  is  found  in:  — 

(a)  newspaper  accounts  of  current  events; 

(6)  books  of  history; 

(c)  biographies; 

(d)  accounts  of  voyages  and  travels; 

(e)  diaries  and  journals; 

(/)   various  types  of  rambling  fiction. 

2.  Narration  with  plot  is  found  in :  — 
(a)  anecdotes; 

(6)  tales  and  fables; 

(c)  romances; 

(d)  short  stories; 

(e)  novelettes; 
(/)   novels. 

4«  Sources  of  material  for  narration. 

1.  Observation  of  actual  incidents  and  events. 

2.  Historical  and  biographical  incidents. 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY     269 

3.  Psychological  research. 

4.  Personal  experience. 

5.  Imagination. 

5«  Sources  of  interest  in  narration:  — 

1.  Incident  (particularly  in  narration  without  plot). 

2.  Plot,  suspense,  and  denouement. 

3.  Background;  local  color. 

4.  Character. 

5.  Conversation;  dialect. 

6.  Moral  problem;  ethical  situation. 

7.  Author's  philosophy  of  life. 

8.  Style. 

6.  The  purpose  of  narration. 

1.  Amusement  or  diversion. 

2.  Illumination:  to  cast  a  searchlight  on  some  phase 
of  life. 

3.  Instruction :  to  confer  an  actual  benefit,  intellect- 
ual or  moral. 

7.  A  SPECIFIC   STUDY   OF  THE   SHORT   STORY 

1.  The  distinguishing  features  of  the  short  story  are:  — 

1.  Length:  usually  from  1500  to  6000  words. 

2.  Concentration:  The  modern  short  story  aims  at 
producing  a  single  effect.  (See  J.  B.  Esenwein: 
Writing  the  Short  Story,  p.  30;  E.  M.  Albright:  The 
Short  Story,  p.  12.) 

2.  Types  of  short  stories.1 

1.  The  story  of  dramatic  interest:  — 

Mateo  Falcone,  by  Merimee;  The  Man  Who  Was,  by 
Kipling;  The  Outcasts  of  Poker  Flat,  by  Harte. 

*  This  classification  makes  no  pretensions  to  finality.  There  are  endless 
ways  of  grouping  short  stories.  See  J.  B.  Esenwein :  Writing  the  Short  Story, 
p.  76  et  3eq. ;  Harriet  Fansler :  Types  of  Prose  Narrative. 


270  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

2.  The  romantic  story:  — 

The  Sire  de  Maletroit's  Door,  by  Stevenson;  The  Fall  of 
the  House  of  Usher,  by  Poe;  The  Sandman,  by  Hoffmann. 

3.  The  didactic  story:  — 

The  Long  Exile,  by  Tolstoy;  The  Maypole  of  Merry 
Mount,  by  Hawthorne. 

4.  The  allegorical  story:  — 

The  Hunter,  by  Olive  Schreiner;  The  Birthmark,  by  Haw- 
thorne; The  Vision  of  Mirza,  by  Addison. 

5.  The  analytic  story:  — 

The  Turn  of  the  Screw,  by  James;  Markheim,  by  Steven- 
son. 

6.  The  supernatural  story:  — 

The  Queen  of  Spades,  by  Poushkin;  The  Monkey's  Paw, 
by  Jacobs;  Wandering  Willie's  Tale,  by  Scott. 

7.  The  human  interest  story:  — 

The  Return  of  a  Private,  by  Garland;  Miss  Tempy's 
Watchers,  by  Jewett;  Irene  Holm,  by  Bang. 

8.  The  local  color  story:  — 

Among  Oie  Corn  Rows,  by  Garland;  Without  Benefit  of 
Clergy,  by  Kipling;  The  God  of  his  Fathers,  by  London. 

9.  The  dialect  story:  — 

Marse  Chan,  by  Page;  A  Church  Mouse,  by  Wilkins; 
Ma'mselle  Delphine,  by  Cable. 

10.  The  story  of  technique:  — 

The  Piece  of  String,  by  Maupassant;  The  Cask  of  Amon- 
tillado, by  Poe. 

11.  The  humorous  surprise  story:  — 

The  Lady  or  the  Tiger?  by  Stockton;  The  Hiding  of  Black 
Bill,  by  Porter  (0.  Henry). 

3.  Title. 

Importance:  — 

1.  Attracts  attention  and  stimulates  interest. 

2.  Characterizes  story. 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY    271 

Qualities  of  a  good  title:  — 

1.  Brevity:  The  Gold  Bug;  By  Proxy;  They;  The  Jew; 
On  the  Stairs. 

2.  Originality:  The  Monkey's  Paw;  Two  Bites  at  a 
Cherry;  The  Spider's  Eye;  The  Transferred  Ghost; 
The  Man  who  Was. 

3.  Suggestiveness:  A  Coward;  The  Purloined  Letter; 
The  Lady  or  the  Tiger?  The  Bottle  Imp;  The  Sub- 
stitute. 

4.  Euphony:  The  Dolly  Dialogues;  The  Bee-Man  of 
Orne;  Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd;  The  Land  of 
Heart's  Desire. 

Qualities  to  be  avoided:  — 

1.  Commonplaceness:  The  Irony  of  Fate;  A  Love 
Story;  An  Exciting  Adventure;  My  Friend  John. 

2.  Length:  Strange  True  Stories  of  Louisiana;  The 
Land  East  of  the  Sun  and  West  of  the  Moon;  The 
Private  History  of  a  Campaign  that  Failed;  Huckle- 
berries Gathered  from  New  England  Hills. 

3.  Sensationalism:  Tempted  by  Two;  A  Barbarian's 
Bride;  The  Cowboy's  Revenge. 

4.  Point  of  view  as  to  person. 

1.  First  Person:  — 

(a)  Points  in  favor  of:  Produces  vividness;  makes 
story  convincing  (especially  good  for  ghost 
stories);  conduces  to  subjective  treatment. 

(6)  Points  against:  Savors  of  the  egoistic;  limits 
use  of  conversation;  limits  range  of  scene; 
limits  analysis  of  motive  (characters  are  seen 
from  the  standpoint  of  only  one  person) ;  an- 
tagonizes the  reader  (there  are  some  stories 
which  one  would  not  be  likely  to  tell  of  him- 
self). 


272  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

2.  Second  person:  — 

Unusual;  scarcely  available,  though  it  has  been 
used  with  success  in  stories  of  child  life.  (See  In 
the  Morning  Glow,  by  Roy  Rolfe  Gilson.) 

3.  Third  person:  — 

Excellent,  for  the  following  reasons :  Permits  range 
of  scene;  allows  varied  conversation;  permits 
analysis  of  motive  (the  "all-seeing  author"  can 
penetrate  the  mind  of  each  character);  favors 
variety  of  attitude  and  phraseology;  makes  author 
unobtrusive;  conduces  to  objective  treatment. 
Note :  On  the  whole,  the  simple,  natural  third  per- 
son appears  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  for  all 
kinds  of  narration. 

5.  Method  of  telling  a  story. 

1 .  "  Straight-away  narration . ' ' 

2.  Detached  incidents. 

3.  Conversation. 

4.  Letters. 

5.  Journals  and  diaries. 

6.  A  combination  of  two  or  more  of  the  methods 
given  above. 

Note  :  Straight-away  narration  combined  with  conver- 
sation usually  brings  good  results.  The  detached  incident 
method  is  excellent,  for  it  provides  short,  concentrated 
sections  of  narration,  each  with  its  own  suspense  and  cli- 
max. It  permits  the  elimination  of  unimportant  material, 
and  allows  a  variety  of  scene  and  action.  When  combined 
with  conversation,  the  detached  incident  method  is  per- 
haps the  most  completely  satisfactory  way  of  handling 
narration  with  plot.  (See  The  Necklace,  by  Maupassant; 
The  Father,  by  Bjornson.) 

Letters,  diaries,  and  journals  are  awkward  in  narration. 
They  allow  but  little  range  in  point  of  view,  background, 
character,  or  conversation;  and  they  necessitate  the  use  of 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY     273 

a  good  deal  of  irrelevant  material.  They  are  likely  to  be 
over-egotistical  and  morbid.  For  this  reason  they  are  best 
adapted  for  stories  of  an  introspective,  personal  nature. 
In  the  hands  of  good  writers,  the  method  of  using  letters  or 
journals  has  occasionally  been  successful.  (See  The  Horla, 
by  Maupassant;  Marjorie  Daw,  by  Aldrich;  The  Diary  of  a 
Superfluous  Man,  by  Turgenev;  The  Fur  Coat,  by  Ludwig 
Fulda.) 

6.  The  Introduction  of  a  Story. 

1.  Purpose:  To  furnish  information  regarding  — 
(a)  Setting. 

(6)  Character, 
(c)  Situation. 

2.  Method: 

(a)  Description.  In  most  of  the  best  stories  of 
modern  times,  description  is  used  for  an  intro- 
duction; by  means  of  it  necessary  information 
is  given,  and  the  tone  of  the  story  is  set. 
Narration  and  conversation  ought  to  follow 
quickly  upon  the  introductory  descriptive 
passage.  (See  Esenwein,  The  Writing  of  the 
Short  Story,  pp.  125-48.) 

(6)  Pure  narration.  Narration  used  in  opening  a 
story  is  lively  and  interesting,  but  it  is  likely  to 
lack  clearness,  unless  it  is  combined  with  de- 
scription or  conversation.  (See  Maupassant's 
The  Little  Soldier;  Coppee's  The  Substitute; 
Kipling's  The  Other  Man;  Poe's  The  Purloined 
Letter.) 

(c)  Conversation.  Conversation  at  the  beginning 
of  a  story  piques  interest,  but  becomes  irritat- 
ing if  not  immediately  explained  by  means  of 
narration  and  description.  (See  Stevenson's 
Markheim;  Deland's  Many  Waters;  Wiggin's  A 
Village  Stradivarius;  Hawthorne's  Feathertop.) 


274  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

(d)  Exposition.  An  expository  passage  at  the 
beginning  of  a  narrative  usually  repels  the 
reader;  it  has,  however,  been  used  with  good 
effect  by  a  few  writers.  (See  Kipling's  Thrown 
Away,  Beyond  the  Pale,  and  On  the  Strength  of  a 
Likeness;  Von  Wildenbruch's  Noble  Blood; 
Anstey's  The  Black  Poodle;  O.  Henry's  A 
Municipal  Report. 
3.  Common  faults  of  introductions:  — 

(a)  Prolixity. 

(6)  Irrelevance. 

(c)  Straining  for  effect;  would-be  cleverness. 

(d)  Over-cornplexity. 

Note  :  Methods  which  would  prove  disastrous  in  the  hands  of 
an  unskilled  writer  are  exhibited  in  Scott's  Wandering  Willie's 
Tale;  Turgenev's  A  Lear  of  the  Steppes;  Meredith's  The  Tale  of 
Chloe;  Balzac's  A  Passion  in  the  Desert;  Poe's  The  Descent  into  the 
Maelstrom. 

7«  Setting. 

Setting  is   "the  background  against  which  the 
events  of  the  story  are  projected."  It  includes:  — 

1.  Time. 

2.  Place. 

1.   Use  of  setting. 

(a)  Scenic.  The  setting  is  not  developed  for  its 
own  sake;  it  remains  subordinate  to  the  action, 
and  furnishes  data  for  the  visualizing  of  events 
and  characters.  It  consists  chiefly  of  inter- 
polated bits  of  description  of  the  nature  of 
"realistic  detail." 

For  this  use  of  setting,  see  Maupassant's  The  Neck- 
lace; Dostoyevski's  The  Thief;  Sudermann's  A  New 
Year's  Confession;  James'  The  Beldonald  Holbein. 

(b)  Structural  or  dramatic.    The  setting  is  closely 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY     275 

bound  up  with  the  plot,  so  that  it  is  actually 
essential  to  the  development  of  the  story; 
sometimes  the  setting  itself  provides  the  situ- 
ation on  which  the  plot  is  founded. 

For  this  use  of  setting,  see  Daudet's  The  Little  Pies; 
Garland's  Up  the  Coolly;  Stimson's  Mrs.  Knollys; 
Harte's  Tennessee's  Partner. 

(c)  Local.  The  setting  is  elaborated  for  its  own 
sake,  in  order  to  show  the  distinguishing  char- 
acteristics of  life  in  some  specific  region;  thus 
the  "local  color"  story  is  produced. 

For  "local"  setting,  see  Harte's  The  Luck  of  Roar- 
ing Camp;  Page's  Marse  Chan;  Wilkins's  A  New  Eng- 
land Nun;  Murfree's  Down  the  Ravine;  Kipling's 
Without  Benefit  of  Clergy. 

8.  Means  of  emphasizing  local  color. 

1.  Description. 

(See  section  on  Description,  page  224-37.) 

2.  Dialect. 

Cable's  Bonaventure;  Watson's  Beside  the  Bonnie  Brier 
Bush;  Harris's  The  Tar  Baby. 

3.  Occupation. 

Connolly's  Out  of  the  Sea;  French's  The  Heart  of  Toil; 
Von  Saar's  The  Stone-Breakers;  Garland's  A  Branch  Road. 

4.  Local  characters. 

Smith's  Colonel  Carter  of  Carter  smile;  Fernald's  China- 
town Stories;  Page's  In  Ole  Virginia. 

5.  Local  customs,  prejudices,  and  superstitions. 

Page's  No  Raid  Pawn;  Hardy's  The  Return  of  the  Native: 
Hearn's  Youma;  Jokai's  The  Day  of  Wrath. 

9.  Dangers  to  be  noted  in  the  use  of  setting:  — 

1.  Irrelevance. 

2.  Over-minuteness. 


276  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

3.  Fine  writing. 

4.  Lack  of  harmony  in  tone. 

5.  Symbolism. 

10.  Dialogue. 

1.  Purpose: 

(a)  To  give  variety  of  tone. 

(b)  To  develop  the  plot. 

(c)  To  emphasize  atmosphere  or  local  color. 

(d)  To  reveal  character. 

(e)  To  produce  suspense. 

2.  Qualities  of  good  dialogue: 

(a)  Brevity.    There  should  be  few  long  speeches; 

the   dialogue   should,   if  possible,  consist   of 

rapid  give  and  take. 
(6)  Relevance.     The   conversation  ought  not  to 

wander  from  the  matter  in  hand,  merely  to 

give  opportunity  for  quaintness  or  cleverness. 

(c)  Intrinsic  interest. 

(d)  Variety  in  handling.  The  author's  commen- 
tary should  avoid  monotony,  as  in  the  use  of 
"he  said,"  "she  exclaimed,"  etc.1 

(e)  Naturalness.  Conversation  must  not  be  stiff 
and  bookish. 

(J)  Adaptation  to  characters  speaking;  individuali- 
zation. 

(g)  Adaptation  to  the  demands  of  the  story.  Dialect, 

slang,  profanity,  and  coarseness  might  be  very 

accurately  adapted  to  the  characters  speaking, 

and  yet  become  tiresome  or  revolting. 

Note:  Some  stories  containing  good  dialogue  are:  Jewett's  A 
Winter  Courtship;  Zangwill's  A  Rose  of  the  Ghetto;  Gorky's 
Twenty-Six  and  One;  Jacobs'  A  Change  of  Treatment;  Hope's  The 
Dolly  Dialogues. 

1  Note,  on  page  277,  an  extended  list  of  expressions  which  can  be  used 
instead  of  the  conventional  said  and  replied. 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY     277 

3.  Dialect  in  a  story  ought  to  be :  — 

(a)  Imperative;  brought  in  by  reason  of  a  distinct 
necessity. 

(6)  Intelligible.  It  may  be  modified  so  that  it  may 
be  easily  understood.  Some  dialect  in  its  most 
accurate  form  makes  very  hard  reading,  as,  for 
instance,  that  in  the  Uncle  Remus  stories. 

(c)  Stimulating.  It  ought  to  contain  words  and 
turns  of  phrase  which  make  it  seem  different 
enough  from  ordinary  speech  to  be  worth 
while. 


A  LIST  OF  SUBSTITUTES   FOR  "SAID" 


acquiesced 

cackled 

demanded 

groaned 

added 

cajoled 

demurred 

growled 

admitted 

called 

denied 

grumbled 

admonished 

catechized 

derided 

grunted 

advised 

chirped 

disputed 

hazarded 

agreed 

choked 

drawled 

hesitated 

amended 

chuckled 

droned 

hinted 

announced 

clamored 

echoed 

hissed 

answered 

coaxed 

ejaculated 

howled 

apologized 

cogitated 

elucidated 

implored 

argued 

commented 

emended 

importuned 

asked 

complained 

enumerated 

inquired 

assented 

conceded 

entreated 

insinuated 

asserted 

confided 

evaded 

insisted 

asseverated 

considered 

exclaimed 

interpolated 

averred 

consoled 

explained 

interposed 

bawled 

contended 

exploded 

interrogated 

began 

continued 

expostulated 

interrupted 

begged^ 

cooed 

exulted 

intervened 

bellowed 

corrected 

faltered 

intimated 

besought 

counseled 

flashed 

jeered 

blurted 

cried 

fleered 

jested 

blustered 

criticized 

fretted 

lamented 

boasted 

croaked 

frowned 

laughed 

bragged 

crowed 

gasped 

leered 

breathed 

debated 

granted 

lisped 

broke  in 

declared 

grieved 

maintained 

burst  out 

deliberated 

grinned 

maundered 

278 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


meditated 

protested 

scoffed 

stuttered 

mimicked 

puffed 

scolded 

suggested 

moaned 

pursued 

screamed 

supplemented 

mocked 

put  in 

screeched 

surmised 

mumbled 

queried 

shivered 

swaggered 

murmured 

questioned 

shouted 

taunted 

mused 

quoted 

shrieked 

thundered 

nodded 

ranted 

shrilled 

tittered 

observed 

reasoned 

sighed 

urged 

panted 

recommended 

simpered 

uttered 

parleyed 

reflected 

smiled 

ventured 

parried 

reiterated 

smirked 

vociferated 

persevered 

rejoined 

snapped 

volunteered 

persisted 

remarked 

snarled 

vouchsafed 

persuaded 

reminded 

sneered 

wailed 

petitioned 

remonstrated 

snickered 

warned 

piped 

repeated 

sniffled 

went  on 

pleaded 

reproached 

sobbed 

wept 

pondered 

reproved 

soliloquized 

wheedled 

pouted 

requested 

speculated 

whimpered 

prayed 

responded 

sputtered 

whined 

predicted 

retaliated 

squalled 

whispered 

proclaimed 

retorted 

squealed 

wondered 

promised 

returned 

stammered 

yawned 

pronounced 

roared 

stipulated 

yelled 

prophesied 

rumbled 

stormed 

yielded 

proposed 

ruminated 

struck  in 

II.  Plot  is  "the  conscious  design  of  the  writer."1 

1.  Plot  elements:  — 

(a)  Complication,  or  tying  of  the  dramatic  knot. 
This  is  often  called  the  "obstacle." 

(6)  Resolution,  or  the  untying  of  the  dramatic 
knot. 
The  surmounting  of  the  obstacle. 

2.  Plot  development:  — 

(a)  Introduction  of  the  situation. 

1  "  Plot  in  fiction  is  the  climactic  sequence  of  events  in  relation  to  the 
character."  J.  B.  Esenwein:  The  Writing  of  the  Short  Story.  "Plot  is 
the  management  of  the  continuous  line  of  action  underlying  the  whole 
progress  of  the  story.  It  concerns  the  sequence  of  events."  E.  M. 
Albright:  The  Short  Story. 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY     279 

(6)  Progress  of  complication. 

This  is  the  story  proper;  it  is  capable  of  infinite 
variety  and  elaboration. 

(c)  Climax  or  crisis. 

(d)  Denouement. 

(e)  Conclusion. 

Note  :  In  the  modern  much-condensed  tale,  the  denouement 
and  the  conclusion  are  sometimes  amalgamated;  the  climax  may 
immediately  precede  them. 

12.  Construction. 

The  demands  of  good  construction  are:  — 

1.  Condensation;  produced  by:  — 
(a)  Direct  approach. 

(6)  Elimination  of  irrelevant  material. 

(c)  Smooth  transition. 

(d)  Economy  of  detail. 

(e)  Rapid  conclusion. 

2.  Movement ;  obtained  by :  — 

(a)  Early  introduction  of  important  characters. 
(6)  Rapid  bridging  of  gaps  in  time. 

(c)  Logical  arrangement  of  incidents. 

(d)  Definite  denouement. 

(e)  Animated  style. 

3.  Suspense;  gained  by:  — 
(a)  Description. 

(6)  Conversation. 

(c)  Interpolated  incidents. 

(d)  Analysis  of  emotions  or  personalities. 

4.  Climax;  secured  by:  — 

(a)  Contrast. 

(b)  Gradual  approach. 

(c)  Accelerated  movement. 

(d)  Elimination  of  non-essentials. 

(e)  Heightening  of  emotional  pitch. 


280  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

Note:  A  story  may  contain  several  subclimaxes,  in  which  the 
interest  is  at  high  tension,  but  these  should  all  be  subordinated  to 
the  grand  climax  associated  with  the  denouement. 

Note  on  construction:  Most  modern  stories  of  acknowledged 
excellence  are  well  constructed;  a  few,  however,  may  be  re- 
marked as  lacking  some  of  the  desirable  characteristics  above 
enumerated:  Austin's  Peter  Rugg  fails  in  directness  and  logical 
arrangement;  Scott's  Wandering  Willie's  Tale  is  slow  in  getting 
under  way;  O'Brien's  The  Diamond  Lens  consists  of  two  separate 
stories,  both  told  with  unnecessary  prolixity;  Dostoyevski's  The 
Thief  wants  compactness;  Tolstoy's  Master  and  Man  has  a 
"tacked  on"  conclusion.  Yet  each  of  these  stories  is  in  many 
ways  so  admirable  that  it  must  be  included  in  any  comprehensive 
list  of  short-story  masterpieces. 

13.  Character. 

1.  Purposes  of  character  portrayal:  — 

(a)  To  present  interesting  personalities. 
(6)  To  show  sectional  peculiarities :  the  local  color 
study. 

(c)  To  illustrate  a  theory  or  point  a  moral. 

(d)  To  exhibit  the  author's  attitude  toward  life. 

(e)  To  develop  the  action  where  plot  interest  is 
primary. 

2.  Methods  of  character  portrayal:  — 

(a)  Selection  of  names.  Names  should  be :  — 

(1)  Definite,  —  not    indicated    by    initials, 
dashes,  or  asterisks. 

(2)  Interesting,  —  not  merely   commonplace 
and  perfunctory. 

Avoid  such  names  as  James  Brown,  Sarah 
Jones,  Mary  Smith,  etc. 

(3)  Adapted  to  characters,  but  not  too  sym- 
bolic. 

Note:  Commonplace,  inappropriate,  or  fantastic  names  may 
be  used  for  humorous  purposes.  Symbolic  names  may  be  used  for 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY     281 

allegorical  purposes.  Ordinarily,  names  used  in  fiction  should 
have  distinction,  significance,  and  propriety.  The  following 
names  are  good :  Hester  Prynne ;  Rip  Van  Winkle;  Mateo  Falcone; 
Jean-Francois  Leturc ;  Ernest  (in  The  Great  Stone  Face) ;  Fortu- 
nato  ( in  The  Cask  of  Amontillado) ;  Roderick  Usher;  Mrs.  Hauks- 
bee;  Thord  Overaas;  Roger  Malvin. 

(6)  Description  (see  section  on  Description  of  Per- 
sons, pages  233-35). 

In  a  short  story  the  description  of  a  person 
should  be  incidental  rather  than  formal,  and 
vivid  rather  than  minute.  It  can  often  be 
conveyed  through  the  speech  of  other  charac- 
ters, and  brought  in  by  means  of  interpolated 
realistic  detail.  Elaborate  descriptions  of 
dress,  unless  imperative  for  the  understanding 
of  the  story,  are  to  be  avoided. 

(c)  Conversation  (see  section  on  Dialogue,  page  276) . 
In  a  short  story,  conversation,  for  economy  of 
detail,  is  usually  made  to  serve  several  pur- 
poses. Each  person  should  speak  in  a  charac- 
teristic manner,  emphasizing  his  individual 
traits.  Tricks  of  speech  and  specific  phrases 
may  be  used  for  characterization;  but  the 
preservation  of  a  consistent  attitude,  as 
exhibited  in  conversation,  is  essential. 

(d)  Action. 

In  a  story,  as  in  real  life,  we  judge  a  person  by 
his  actions.  What  he  does  counts  for  more 
than  what  he  says.  A  series  of  incidents  in 
which  a  character  has  an  opportunity  of 
revealing  itself  by  action  can  usually  be 
handled  with  good  results.  This  method, 
combined  with  that  of  conversation,  is  used  in 
a  large  proportion  of  the  good  short  stories  in 
all  languages. 


282  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

(e)  Analysis. 

Exposition  of  a  character  by  direct  analysis  is 
usually  a  most  undesirable  method,  since  it 
repels  the  ordinary  reader.  It  is  better  to  let  a 
person  in  a  story  speak  and  act  for  himself. 
When  analysis  seems  essential,  it  should  be 
pertinent,  brief,  concentrated,  and  animated. 
The  analytic  or  psychological  type  of  story,  a 
distinctly  modern  invention,  has  a  legitimate 
place  but  it  reaches  a  comparatively  small 
circle  of  readers. 

REPRESENTATIVE   SHORT  STORIES  OF   VARIOUS 

NATIONS 

Stories  by  French  Authors. 

The  Substitute.  Francois  Coppee. 
A  Piece  of  String.  Guy  de  Maupassant. 
The  Two  Friends.  Guy  de  Maupassant. 
The  Last  Class.  Alphonse  Daudet. 
The  Attack  on  the  Mill.  Emile  Zola. 
The  Venus  of  Ille.  Prosper  Merimee. 
La  Grande  Breteche.  Honore  de  Balzac. 

Stories  by  English  Authors. 

A  Lodging  for  the  Night.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

The  Man  Who  Was.  Rudyard  Kipling. 

The  Monkey's  Paw.  W.  W.  Jacobs. 

The  Black  Poodle.  F.  Anstey  (pseud.). 

A  Rose  of  the  Ghetto.  I.  Zangwill. 

On  the  Stairs.  Arthur  Morrison. 

How  Gavin  Birse  put  it  to  Mag  Lownie.  J.  M.  Barrie. 

Stories  by  American  Authors. 

The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow.  Washington  Irving. 
The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 
Rappaccini's  Daughter.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
The  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp.  Bret  Harte. 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY     283 

Brooksmith.  Henry  James. 

Marjorie  Daw.  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich. 

The  Remarkable  Wreck  of  the  Thomas  Hyke.  Frank  R.  Stockton. 

A  Municipal  Report.  0.  Henry. 

Stories  by  German  Authors. 

A  Cremona  Violin.  E.  T.  W.  Hoffmann. 

The  Rider  on  the  White  Horse.  Theodor  Storm. 

Good  Blood.  Ernst  von  Wildenbruch. 

L'Arrabbiata.  Paul  Heyse. 

The  Gooseherd.  H.  Sudermann. 

The  Fur  Coat.  Ludwig  Fulda. 

The  Stone-Breakers.  F.  von  Saar. 

Stories  by  Russian  Authors. 
A  Living  Relic.  Ivan  Turgenev. 
Master  and  Man.  Leo  Tolstoy. 
The  Thief.  F.  M.  Dostoyevski. 
Twenty-Six  and  One.  Maxim  Gorky  (pseud.). 
The  Cloak.  N.V.Gogol. 
The  Slanderer.  Anton  Chekov. 
The  Signal.  V.  M.  Garshin. 

Stories  by  Scandinavian  Authors. 

The  Outlaws.  Selma  Lagerlof. 

The  Father.  Bjornstjerne  Bjornson. 

Railroad  and  Churchyard.  Bjornstjerne  Bjornson. 

Irene  Holm.  H.  B.  Bang. 

The  Phoenix.  August  Strindberg. 

The  Rector  of  Veilbye.  Steen  Steensen  Blicher. 

Stories  by  Italian  Authors. 

The  Silver  Crucifix.  Antonio  Fogazzaro. 
The  End  of  Candia.  Gabriele  d'Annunzio. 

Stories  by  Spanish  Authors. 

Luck.  Pedro  de  Alarc6n. 

The  Stranger.  Pedro  de  Alarc6n. 

El  Senor.  Leopoldo  Alas. 

An  Aged  Youth.  Leopoldo  Ala*. 

Fortuna.  E.  P.  Escrich. 


284  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

A  CLASSIFIED  LIST  OF  SHORT  STORIES 

Stories  of  Dramatic  Interest  and  Technique. 
La  Grande  Breteclie.  Honors  de  Balzac. 
The  Attack  on  the  Mill.  Emile  Zola. 
Mateo  Falcone.  Prosper  Merimee. 
The  Venus  of  IUe.  Prosper  Merimee. 
The  Outcasts  of  Poker  Flat.  Bret  Harte. 
The  Shot.  Alexander  Poushkin. 
The  Necklace.  Guy  de  Maupassant. 
A  Piece  of  String.  Guy  de  Maupassant. 
La  Mere  Sauvage.  Guy  de  Maupassant. 
The  Cask  of  Amontillado.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 
The  Pit  and  the  Pendulum.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 
The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 
The  Three  Strangers.   Thomas  Hardy. 
The  Signal.  V.  M.  Garshin. 
The  Substitute.  Francois  Copp6e. 
The  Sire  de  Maletroit's  Door.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 
The  Duchess  at  Prayer.  Edith  Wharton. 

Stories  of  the  Supernatural. 

Wandering  Willie's  Tale.  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

The  Upper  Berth.  F.  M.  Crawford. 

The  Bottle  Imp.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

The  Queen  of  Spades.  Alexander  Poushkin. 

The  Monkey's  Paw.  W.  W.  Jacobs. 

They.  Rudyard  Kipling. 

The  Phantom  'Rickshaw.  Rudyard  Kipling. 

The  Apparition  of  Mrs.  Veal.  Daniel  Defoe. 

The  Tall  Woman.  Pedro  de  Alarc6n. 

The  Turn  of  the  Screw.  Henry  James. 

The  Shadows  on  the  Wall.  Mary  E.  Wilkins. 

Peter  Rugg,  the  Missing  Man.  William  Austin. 

The  Rider  on  the  White  Horse  (Der  Schimmelreiter).   Theodor 

Storm. 
The  Mummy's  Foot.  Th£ophile  Gautier. 
The  Lifted  Veil.  George  Eliot. 
Tales  of  Men  and  Ghosts  (collected).  Edith  Wharton. 
The  Black  Badger.  Arthur  Morrison. 
Teacher  and  Taught.  Arthur  Morrison. 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY      285 

Stories  of  the  Grotesque,  Mysterious,  and  Horrible. 

The  Murders  in  the  Rue  Morgue.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

Ligeia.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

The  Tell-tale  Heart.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

The  Black  Cat.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

Berenice.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

The  Facts  in  the  Case  of  M.  Valdemar.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

The  Coffin-Maker.  Alexander  Poushkin. 

The  Withered  Arm.  Thomas  Hardy. 

The  Strange  Ride  of  Morrowbie  Jukes.  Rudyard  Kipling. 

At  the  End  of  the  Passage.  Ruydard  Kipling. 

Bimi.  Rudyard  Kipling. 

What  was  it?    A  Mystery.  Fitz-James  O'Brien. 

The  Horla.  Guy  de  Maupassant. 

On  the  River.  Guy  de  Maupassant. 

A  Terribly  Strange  Bed.  Wilkie  Collins. 

The  House  and  the  Brain.  Sir  Edward  Bulwer-Lytton. 

The  Death  of  Ivan  Ilyitch.  Leo  Tolstoy. 

Thravm  Janet.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

Olalla.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

The  Jew.  Ivan  Turgenev. 

The  Dead  Leman  (La  Morte  Amoureuse).  Theophile  Gautier. 

The  Damned  Thing.  Ambrose  Bierce. 

Stories  of  Domestic  and  Social  Life. 

Little  Stories  of  Married  Life   (collected).    Mary  Stewart 

Cutting. 
More  Stories  of  Married  Life   (collected).    Mary   Stewart 

Cutting. 
The  Suburban  Whirl  (collected).  Mary  Stewart  Cutting. 
Old  Chester  Tales  (collected).  Margaret  Deland. 
Doctor  Lavendar's  People  (collected).  Margaret  Deland. 
Tales  of  New  England  (collected).  Sarah  Orne  Jewett. 
A  New  England  Nun  and  Otlier  Stories  (collected).   Mary  E. 

Wilkins. 
The  Village  Watch  Tower  (collected).  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin. 
The  Girl  from  the  Marsh  Croft  (collected).  Selma  Lagerlof. 
Pkcebe  and  Ernest,  (collected).  Inez  Haynes  Gillmore. 
The  Old  Folks.  Alphonse  Daudet. 
An  Unhappy  Girl.  Ivan  Turgenev. 


386  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

The  Phoenix.  August  Strindberg. 

Love  and  Bread.  August  Strindberg. 

The  Lotus-Eaters.  Virginia  Tracy. 

A  New  Year's  Confession.  Herman  Sudermann. 

Domestic  Happiness.  Leo  Tolstoy. 

Moral,  Didactic,  and  Allegorical  Stories. 
The  Ambitious  Guest.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
The  Birthmark.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
Rappaccini's  Daughter.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
The  Great  Carbuncle.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
The  Great  Stone  Face.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
Feathertop.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
Dr.  Heidegger's  Experiment.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
The  Maypole  of  Merry  Mount.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 
The  Hunter.  Olive  Schreiner. 

The  Man  Without  a  Country.  Edward  Everett  Hale. 
The  Vision  of  Mirza.  Joseph  Addison. 
The  Father.  Bjornstjerne  Bjornson. 
Children  Wiser  than  their  Elders.  Leo  Tolstoy. 
The  Long  Exile.  Leo  Tolstoy. 
The  Ugly  Duckling.  Hans  Christian  Andersen. 
The  Steadfast  Tin  Soldier.  Hans  Christian  Andersen. 
The  Christmas  Guest.  Selma  Lagerlof. 
The  Silver  Mine.  Selma  Lagerlof. 
Monsieur  Scguin's  Goat.  Alphonse  Daudet. 
The  Song  of  the  Falcon.  Maxim  Gorky. 

Human  Interest  Stories. 

On  the  Stairs.  Arthur  Morrison. 

Mrs.  Knollys.  F.  J.  Stimson. 

The  Vitriol  Thrower.  Francois  Copp6e. 

The  Vices  of  the  Captain.  Francois  Coppee. 

The  Old  Folks.  Alphonse  Daudet. 

The  Mothers.  Alphonse  Daudet. 

The  Pope  is  Dead.  Alphonse  Daudet 

The  Last  Class.  Alphonse  Daudet. 

The  Little  Pies.  Alphonse  Daudet. 

Justice  and  the  Judge.  Margaret  Deland. 

Bourn  Bourn.  Jules  Claretie. 


A    SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY    287 

Quite  So.  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich. 

Miss  Tempy's  Watchers.  Sarah  Orne  Jewett. 

The  Dvlham  Ladies.  Sarah  Orne  Jewett. 

A  White  Heron.  Sarah  Orne  Jewett. 

Muhammad  Din.  Rudyard  Kipling. 

The  Lotus-Eaters.  Virginia  Tracy. 

The  Lady  of  Shalott.  Elizabeth  Stewart  Phelps. 

The  Happiest  Time.  Mary  Stewart  Cutting. 

TJie  Hundred  and  Oneth.  Annie  Hamilton  Donnell. 

Local  Color  Stories  and  Dialect  Stories. 

[N.B.  Most  of  the  titles  here  given  belong  to  collections  of  short  stories; 
those  which  indicate  individual  stories  are  starred  (*).] 

A  Humble  Romance.  Mary  E.  Wilkins. 

A  New  England  Nun.  Mary  E.  Wilkins. 

Tales  of  New  England.  Sarah  Orne  Jewett. 

The  Queen's  Twin.  Sarah  Orne  Jewett. 

The  King  of  Folly  Island.  Sarah  Orne  Jewett. 

A  Native  of  Winby.  Sarah  Orne  Jewett. 

Soldiers  Three.  Rudyard  Kipling. 

Under  the  Deodars.  Rudyard  Kipling. 

Plain  Tales  from  the  Hills.  Rudyard  Kipling. 

The.  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp.  Bret  Harte. 

Wessex  Tales.  Thomas  Hardy. 

Main  Travelled  Roads.  Hamlin  Garland. 

Nights  with  Uncle  Remus.  Joel  Chandler  Harris. 

A  Day  at  Laguerre's.  F.  Hopkinson  Smith. 

Prose  Tales.  Alexander  Poushkin. 

The  Snow  Storm*  Leo  Tolstoy. 

Li,ttle  Novels  of  Italy.  Maurice  Hewlett. 

Tiverton  Tales.  Alice  Brown. 

A  County  Road.  Alice  Brown. 

In  Ole  Virginia.  Thomas  Nelson  Page. 

Elsket.  Thomas  Nelson  Page. 

Two  Gentlemen  of  Kentucky*  James  Lane  Allen. 

A  Kentucky  Cardinal*  James  Lane  Allen, 

Flute  and  Violin.  James  Lane  Allen. 

Blue  Grass  and  Rhododendron.  John  Fox,  Jr. 

A  Cumberland  Vendetta.  John  Fox,  Jr. 

Christmas  Eve  on  Lonesome.  John  Fox,  Jr. 

Old  Creole  Days.  G.  W.  Cable. 


288  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

Strange  True  Stories  of  Louisiana.  G.  W.  Cable. 

Stories  of  a  Western  Town.  Octave  Thanet  (pseud.). 

The  Heart  of  Toil.  Octave  Thanet. 

Wolfville  Nights.  Alfred  Henry  Lewis. 

Wolfville  Days.  Alfred  Henry  Lewis. 

The  Dancin'  Party  at  Harrison's  Cove.  Mary  E.  Murfree. 

On  the  Eve  of  the  Fourth.  Harold  Frederic. 

Vignettes  of  Manhattan.  Brander  Matthews. 

Chinatown  Stories.  C.  B.  Fernald. 

Love  of  Life.  Jack  London. 

The  God  of  his  FatJiers.  Jack  London. 

The  Sign  of  tJie  Wolf.  Jack  London. 

South  Sea  Stories.  Jack  London. 

Beside  the  Bonnie  Brier  Bush.  John  Watson  ("  Ian  MacLaren  ") 

Auld  Licht  Idylls.  J.  M.  Barrie. 

Blazed  Trail  Stories.  S.  E.  White. 

Youma*  Lafcadio  Hearn. 

Divers  Vanities.  Arthur  Morrison. 

Humorous  Stories;  Surprise  Stories. 
Marjorie  Daw.  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich. 
Mademoiselle  Olympe  Zabriski.  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich. 
Goliath.  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich. 
Philosophy  Four.  Owen  Wister. 
Pigs  is  Pigs.  Ellis  Parker  Butler. 
The  Jumping  Frog.  Samuel  L.  Clemens. 
Who  Was  She?  Bayard  Taylor. 
The  Lady  or  the  Tiger?  Frank  R.  Stockton. 
A  Tale  of  Negative  Gravity.  Frank  R.  Stockton. 
The  Remarkable  Wreck  of  the  Thomas  Hyke.  Frank  R.  Stockton. 
The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow.  Washington  Irving. 
The  Love  Letters  of  Smith.  H.  C.  Bunner. 
The  Rajah's  Diamond.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 
The  Lady  of  the  Barge.  W.  W.  Jacobs. 
A  Change  of  Treatment.  W.  W.  Jacobs. 
Gilray's  Flower  Pot.  J.  M.  Barrie. 
The  Hiding  of  Black  Bill.  0.  Henry. 

Psychological  Stories. 

The  Real  Thing.  Henry  James. 
Brooksmith.  Henry  James. 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY     289 

The  Liar.  Henry  James. 

Four  Meetings.  Henry  James. 

The  Case  of  General  Ople  and  Lady  Camper.  George  Meredith. 

Markheim.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

A  Coward.  Guy  de  Maupassant. 

The  Red  Flower.    V.  M.  Garshin. 

Torture  by  Hope.    Villiers  de  l'lsle  Adam. 

Crucial  Instances  (collected).  Edith  Wharton. 

Fanciful,  Sentimental,  and  Idyllic  Stories. 

Will  o'  the  Mill.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

The  Brushwood  Boy.  Rudyard  Kipling. 

A  Child's  Dream  of  a  Star.  Charles  Dickens. 

In  St.  Jurgen.  Theodor  Storm. 

Immensee.  Theodor  Storm. 

Fere  Antoine's  Date  Palm.  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich. 

Rip  Van  Winkle.  Washington  Irving. 

The  Legend  of  the  Christmas  Rose.  Selma  Lagerlof . 

Detective  Stories. 

The  Murders  in  the  Rue  Morgue.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

The  Gold  Bug.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

The  Purloined  Letter.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

The  Mystery  of  Marie  Roget.  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

The  Nail.  Pedro  de  Alarcon. 

The  Safety  Match.  Anton  Chekov. 

The  Adventures  of  SJierlock  Holmes.  Sir  Arthur  Conan  Doyle. 

Memoirs  of  Sfierlock  Holmes.  Sir  Arthur  Conan  Doyle. 


EXERCISES  IN   NARRATION 

1.  Find  five  notable  pieces  of  narration  without  plot.  Upon 
what  do  they  depend  for  their  success? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  ten  short-story  titles  which  you  consider  good; 
a  list  of  ten  that  you  consider  objectionable  or  inadequate. 

3.  Examine  the  introductions  of  five  standard  short  stories; 
characterize  each  introduction,  and  weigh  its  merits  and 
defects. 

4.  Write  introductions  exemplifying  two  of  the  four  methods 
given  in  the  outline.   (See  page  273.) 


290  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

5.  Find  three  or  four  short  stories  written  in  the  first  person, 
and  discover,  if  possible,  the  reasons  why  the  authors  chose 
that  form.  Devise  a  plot  for  a  story  to  be  written  in  the  first 
person. 

6.  What  are  the  dangers  of  the  diary  or  journal  as  a  method  of 
telling  a  story?  Examine  carefully  two  or  three  stories  which 
use  this  method,  and  note  the  reasons  for  the  authors'  success 
or  failure. 

7.  Write  a  story  or  a  part  of  a  story  in  the  form  of  letters,  and 
note  the  difficulties  involved. 

8.  Distinguish  between  local  color  and  realistic  detail,  and  draw 
illustrations  from  standard  short  stories,  or  novels. 

9.  Study  Hamlin  Garland's  Among  the  Corn  Rows,  and  note 
specifically  what  devices  the  author  uses  in  order  to  empha- 
size local  color.  (See  outline,  page  275.)  In  this  particular 
story,  which  leaves  the  stronger  impression,  —  character,  or 
setting? 

10.  Write  a  local  color  story  —  or  a  fragment  of  a  story  —  mak- 
ing use  of  the  devices  which  you  have  noted  in  Among  the 
Corn  Rows. 

11.  Select  three  newspaper  clippings,  and  show  how  the  situa- 
tions involved  might  be  used  in  short  stories.  Show  specifi- 
cally what  alterations  and  adaptations  might  be  made,  and 
why  these  would  be  desirable.  In  each  case,  outline  the  com- 
pleted plot. 

12.  Make  a  study  of  a  notable  story  which  consists  of  detached 
incidents.  Note  carefully  what  each  separate  section  con- 
tains, and  how  it  contributes  to  the  development  of  the 
story.  See  how  the  author  makes  transitions,  and  bridges 
gaps  in  time  and  space. 

13.  Make  a  study  of  The  Cask  of  Amontillado  and  see  how  it 
answers  the  requirements  for  good  construction.  (See  out- 
line, page  279.)  Select  a  magazine  story  and  analyze  it  in  the 
same  way. 

14.  Study  the  conversation  in  Miss  Jewett's  A  Winter  Courtship 
to  see  how  the  story  progresses  through  the  implications  of 
what  is  said.  Why  is  the  dialogue  good?  See  how  it  measures 
up  to  the  standards  set  in  the  outline,  page  276. 

15.  Try  to  write  a  story  —  preferably  as  short  as  A  Winter 
Courtship  —  in  which  the  plot  is  developed  by  conversa- 
tion. 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY     201 

16.  Study  one  of  the  Dolly  Dialogues,  to  see  how  plot  is  developed 
by  conversation. 

17.  Study  Dostoyevski's  The  Thief,  —  or  any  other  good  charac- 
ter story,  —  and  make  a  specific  list  of  the  devices  employed 
for  emphasizing  individual  traits,  or  bringing  out  one  par- 
ticular quality.  Note  how  other  characters  in  the  story  are 
subordinated,  and  made  to  contribute  to  the  effect  which  the 
chief  character  is  to  produce.  See  which  methods  indicated  in 
the  outline  are  most  used. 

18.  Study  the  chief  characters  in  Tolstoy's  Master  and  Man; 
Meredith's  The  Tale  of  Chloe;  James's  Brooksmith;  Steven- 
son's Markheim;  Mrs.  Deland's  Justice  and  the  Judge;  Harte's 
The  Outcasts  of  Poker  Flat.  See  how  the  persons  involved 
reveal  their  own  characters;  how  they  are  revealed  by  the 
words  and  actions  of  other  persons;  and  how  the  author  ana- 
lyzes them  for  the  benefit  of  the  reader. 

19.  Write  a  simple  sketch  or  fragment  in  which  you  attempt  to 
concentrate  upon  the  revelation  of  a  particular  character. 
Subordinate  everything  in  the  sketch  to  that  one  purpose. 

20.  What  is  the  single  effect  produced  in  each  of  the  following 
stories?  What  Was  Itf  A  Mystery;  The  Monkey's  Paw;  A 
Piece  of  String;  The  Substitute;  The  Man  Who  Was;  A  Lodging 
for  the  Night;  A  Living  Relic;  The  Birthmark. 

21.  Give  a  list  of  twenty-five  suggestions  for  the  short-story 
writer,  based  on  your  study  of  classic  examples. 

22.  Select  at  random  five  standard  stories,  and  try  to  determine 
the  purpose  of  the  author  in  each  case.  (See  outline,  page 
269.) 

23.  Analyze  the  plot  of  The  Sire  de  Maletroit's  Door;  or,  Mateo 
Falcone;  or,  The  Three  Strangers;  or,  The  Shot;  or,  The  Man 
without  a  Country;  or,  The  Phantom.  'Rickshaw;  or,  Up  the 
Coolly;  or,  The  Diamond  Lens;  or,  The  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp. 
Consider  it  as  a  bare  outline,  or  skeleton,  and  note  its  possi- 
bilities: Is  it  a  good  plot  in  itself,  —  fresh,  interesting,  and 
stimulating?  Point  out  the  complication,  or  obstacle;  the 
points  of  highest  interest  and  deepest  complication;  the 
climax;  the  denouement;  the  fall,  or  conclusion.  Is  the  resolu- 
tion, or  the  "way  the  story  turns  out"  entirely  satisfactory? 
Has  the  author  sustained  the  quality  of  his  story  until  the 
last?  Try  to  see  how  much  the  story  depends  on  its  plot,  and 
how  much  on  its  treatment.  Is  the  author  more  interested  in 
his  plot  or  in  his  characters? 


292  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

24.  Devise  a  plot  for  a  story  of  mystery  or  adventure.  Outline  it 
in  brief  skeleton  form,  according  to  the  suggestions  on  pages 
278-79.  Then  go  over  it,  filling  in  the  outline  with  notes  as  to 
how  each  particular  part  can  be  treated,  and  how  the  desired 
effects  can  be  produced.  Pay  particular  attention  to  propor- 
tion. The  beginner  is  likely  to  "telescope"  the  story,  giving 
too  much  space  to  the  earlier  parts  and  not  enough  to  sus- 
pense and  the  working  out  of  the  denouement. 

25.  Write  the  story  which  you  have  plotted  according  to  the 
above  suggestions. 

26.  Find  a  story  in  a  so-called  "trashy"  magazine,  and  examine  it 
carefully,  weighing  its  value  according  to  the  standards  that 
you  have  formed  in  your  study  of  the  short  story.  Compare  it 
with  a  classic  example  of  the  good  short  story,  and  see  in  what 
ways  it  is  defective. 

27.  Complete  a  story,  a  part  of  which  has  been  read  aloud  to  you 
by  your  teacher  or  one  of  your  colleagues. 

28.  Write  a  short  story  based  on  one  of  the  following  situations, 
using  the  setting  with  which  you  are  most  familiar:  — 

(a)  Pride  and  its  downfall. 

(6)  Wasted  generosity  and  kindness. 

(c)  Crime  and  its  detection. 

(d)  Poverty. 

(e)  Friendliness  to  strangers. 
(/)  Slander  refuted. 

(g)  A  trial  of  endurance. 

(h)  A  sudden  change  of  character. 

(i)   Loss  of  faith  in  some  one  admired  or  loved. 

(j)   Discontent. 

(k)  A  misunderstood  character  revealed  in  its  true  light. 

REFERENCES 

Note  :  The  first  list  contains  the  titles  of  books  relating  to  the  art 
of  narration.  The  second  contains  references  to  parts  of  books  dealing 
with  this  subject. 


Albright,  E.  M.   TJie  Short  Story. 

Ashmun,  Margaret.   Modern  Short  Stories. 

Ashmun,  Margaret.   Prose  Literature  for  Secondary  Schools. 

Barrett,  C.  R.  Short-Story  Writing. 


A  SPECIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  SHORT  STORY     293 

Besant,  Walter.   The  Art  of  Fiction. 

Brewster,  W.  T.  Specimens  of  Narration. 

Canby,  H.  S.  A  Study  of  the  Short  Story. 

Canby,  H.  S.   The  Short  Story. 

Chester,  G.  R.   The  Art  of  Short-Story  Writing. 

Cody,  Sherwin.  How  to  Write  Fiction. 

Cooper,  F.  T.  Some  American  Story-Tellers. 

Davidson,  H.  A.   The  Creative  Art  of  Fiction. 

Davies,  F.   Practical  Story  Writing. 

Dye,  Charity.   The  Story-Teller's  Art. 

Esenwein,  J.  B.   Writing  the  Short  Story. 

Esenwein,  J.  B.  Studying  the  Short  Story. 

Esenwein,  J.  B.,  and  Chambers,  M.  D.  The  Art  of  Story-Writing. 

Fansler,  H.  E.   Types  of  Narration. 

Gerwig,  G.  W.    The  Art  of  the  Short  Story. 

Grabo,  C.  H.   The  Art  of  the  Short  Story. 

Green,  T.  H.    An  Estimate  of  the  Value  and  Influence  of  Works  of 

Fiction. 
Hamilton,  Clayton.   Materials  and  Methods  of  Fiction. 
Heydrick,  B.  A.   Types  of  the  Short  Story. 
Horne,  C.  F.   The  Technique  of  the  Novel. 
James,  Henry.   The  Art  of  Fiction. 

Jessup,  A.,  and  Canby,  H.  S.    The  Book  of  the  Short  Story. 
Matthews,  Brander.    The  Short  Story. 
Matthews,  Brander.   The  Philosophy  of  the  Short  Story. 
Matthews,  Brander.  Aspects  of  Fiction. 
Maxcy,  C.  L.   The  Rhetorical  Principles  of  Narration. 
Maxcy,  C.  L.  Representative  Narratives. 
Perry,  Bliss.   The  Study  of  Prose  Fiction. 
Phillips,  H.  A.  Art  in  Short-Story  Narration. 
Phillips,  H.  A.   The  Plot  of  the  Short  Story. 
Pitkin,  W.  B.   The  Art  and  the  Business  of  Short-Story  Writing. 
Quirk,  L.  W.  How  to  Write  a  Short  Story. 
Salisbury,  and  Beckwith.   Index  to  Short  Stories. 
Smith,  C.  A.   The  American  Short  Story. 
Smith,  L.  W.   The  Writing  of  the  Short  Story. 
Taylor,  J.  R.   Composition  in  Narration. 
Waite,  A.  V.,  and  Taylor,  E.  M.  Modern  Masterpieces  of  Short  Prose 

Fiction. 
Wells,  Carolyn.   The  Technique  of  the  Mystery  Story. 

B 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   College  Manual  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  137-68. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.   Composition  Oral  and  Written,  pp.  248-86. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.  How  to  Write;  a  Handbook  Based  on  the  English  Bible, 
pp.  104-62, 


294  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

Baldwin,  C.  S.   Writing  and  Speaking,  pp.  328-63. 

Bates,  Arlo.    Talks  on  Writing  English,  vol.  i,  pp.  210-57;  vol.  n, 

pp.  193-210. 
Berkeley,  F.  C.    College  Course  in  Writing  from  Models,  pp.  347- 

478. 
Brewster,  W.  T.  English  Composition  and  Style,  pp.  312-38. 
Brown  and  Barnes.    The  Art  of  Writing  English,  pp.  332-75. 
Canby,  H.  S.,  and  others.   English  Composition  in  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice, pp.  299-336. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.   Model  English  Prose,  pp.  73-207. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.   Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  330-60. 
Duncan,  Beck,  and  Graves.   Prose  Specimens,  pp.  106-208. 
Fulton,  Edward.   English  Prose  Composition,  pp.  232-97. 
Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold.    Manual  of  Composition  and 

Rhetoric,  pp.  11-88. 
Genung,  J.  F.   Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  356-82. 
Genung,  J.  F.   The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  511-53. 
Grose,  H.  B.  Specimens  of  English  Composition,  pp.  394-536. 
Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Composition,  pp.  177-91. 
Herrick  and  Damon.    New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools, 

pp.  441-57. 
Hill,  A.  S.   Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  281-99. 
Lewis,    E.    H.     Specimens   of   the   Forms   of   Discourse,    pp.    55- 

126. 
Linn,  J.  W.   Illustrative  Examples  of  English  Composition,  pp.  176- 

231. 
Linn,  J.  W.    The  Essentials  of  English  Composition,  pp.  146-67. 
Newcomer,  A.  G.    A  Practical  Course  in  English  Composition,  pp. 

15-46. 
Newcomer  and  Seward.   Rhetoric  in  Practice,  pp.  6-25. 
Nutter,  C.  R.,  and  others.  Specimens  of  Prose  Composition,  pp.  367- 

466. 
Rankin,  T.  E.,  and  Brumm,  J.  R.  Materials  for  the  Study  of  Rhetoric, 

pp.  37-50. 
Stebbins,  C.  M.   A  Progressive  Course  in  English,  pp.  1-27. 
Sykes,  F.  H.  Elementary  English  Composition,  pp.  1-130. 
Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  239-72. 
Webbter,  W.  F.  English  Composition  and  Literature,  pp.  13-48. 

8.  THE   DRAMA 

I .  The  meaning  of  drama. 

A   simple   and   comprehensive   definition   of  the 
drama  is  almost  impossible.  The  descriptions  quoted 


THE  DRAMA 

below  will  draw  attention  to  the  most  significant  ele- 
ments in  the  structure  and  purpose  of  a  play. 

(a)  "A  drama  is  a  presentation  of  an  action,  or  closely  inter- 
linked series  of  actions,  expressed  directly  by  means  of 
speech  and  gesture.  It  is,  however,  distinguished  from 
other  literary  species,  not  only  by  its  form,  but  by  its 
subject-matter  and  its  point  of  view."  Elizabeth 
Woodbridge  :  The  Drama,  its  Law  and  Technique. 

(b)  "A  drama  is  the  imitation  of  a  complete  action,  adapted 
to  the  sympathetic  attention  of  man,  developed  in  a  suc- 
cession of  continuously  interesting  and  continuously 
related  incidents,  acted  and  expressed  by  means  of 
speech  and  the  symbols,  actualities,  and  conditions  of 
life."  W.  T.  Price:  The  Technique  of  the  Drama. 

(c)  "  In  the  broadest  sense,  a  play  is  a  complete  and  unified 
story  of  human  life  acted  out  on  the  stage  in  a  series  of 
motived  incidents  so  arranged  as  to  excite  the  greatest 
amount  of  interest  and  pleasure  in  the  spectator  by 
means  of  novelty,  contrast,  suspense,  climax,  humor, 
and  pathos."  Alfred  Hennequin:  The  Art  of  Play- 
Writing. 

(d)  "A  tragedy  is  an  imitation  of  an  action  that  is  serious 
and  also,  as  having  magnitude,  complete  in  itself ;  in  lan- 
guage with  pleasurable  accessories,  each  kind  brought 
in  separately  in  the  parts  of  the  work ;  in  a  dramatic,  not 
narrative  form;  with  incidents  arousing  pity  and  fear 
wherewith  to  accomplish  its  catharsis  of  such  emotions. 
Here  by  '  language  with  pleasurable  accessories '  I  mean 
that  with  rhythm  and  harmony  of  song  superadded; 
and  by  'the  kinds  separately'  I  mean  that  some  por- 
tions are  worked  out  with  verse  only,  and  others  in  turn 
with  song."  Aristotle:  Poetics  (translated  by  Ingram 
Bywater) . 

2*  Types  of  drama. 

There  is  no  standard  or  fixed  classification  of  the 
varieties  of  drama.  The  loose  and  general  division 
into  tragedies  and  comedies  is  useful  but  not  exact. 
A  tragedy  usually  deals  with  the  sterner  and  more 


296  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

serious  aspects  of  life;  the  problem  with  which  it  is 
concerned  has  an  unhappy  ending.  A  comedy,  on  the 
other  hand,  makes  use  of  the  dramatic  phases  of  life 
in  such  a  way  that  all  the  latent  power  of  amusement 
is  utilized;  it  usually  has  a  conclusion  that  is  happy  or 
laughable.  But  the  problem  of  classification  into 
types  is  complicated  by  the  fact  that  comedy  and 
tragedy  are  often  mixed,  and  that  scenery  and  music 
enter  in  as  factors  which  give  distinctive  character  to 
what  are,  after  all,  phases  of  dramatic  art. 

The  following  types  of  drama  should  be  noted:  Trag- 
edy, comedy,  drame,  piece,  Schauspiel,  melodrama, 
spectacular  drama,  musical  comedy  or  comic  opera,  bur- 
lesque, farce,  and  farce  comedy.  (Cf.  Hamlet,  Act  II, 
Sc.  2.) 

3.  Limitations  and  conventions  of  the  stage. 

Like  every  other  art,  the  drama  has  its  conventions 
or  peculiarities  which  are  due  partly  to  the  material 
with  which  it  deals  and  partly  to  the  process  of  his- 
torical development  through  which  it  has  passed. 
Obviously  the  most  striking  convention  is  to  be  found 
in  the  fact  that  a  number  of  people  come  together  at  a 
definite  time  and  look  and  listen  for  a  definite  length 
of  time  and  pay  to  be  amused  or  interested  during 
that  time.  Some  of  the  more  obvious  conventional 
practices  of  the  stage  are  the  following:  — 

1.  The  stage  has  three  sides  only. 

2.  The  scenery  is  partly  or  entirely  artificial. 

3.  Important  action  generally  takes  place  in  the 
center  of  the  stage. 

4.  Actors  nearly  always  face  the  audience. 

5.  An  entire  change  of  scene  or  a  long  lapse  of  time 
may  take  place  in  a  few  moments. 

6.  Stage  time  does  not  correspond  to  real  time. 


THE  DRAMA  297 

7.  Asides  and  stage  whispers  are  not  heard  by  persons 
on  the  stage. 

8.  People  on  the  stage  may  talk  to  themselves  and 
read  letters  aloud  for  the  information  of  the  audi- 
ence. 

9.  The  lighting  of  the  stage  does  not  always  corre- 
spond to  that  of  reality. 

4«  Dramatic  factors. 

The  chief  elements  which  go  to  make  up  a  play  are 
the  following :  — 

(a)  Characters. 

(b)  Action,  including  motives  and  general  theme. 

(c)  Time. 

(d)  Place  or  scene. 

5.  The  unities. 

In  the  development  of  the  drama  there  has  been 
much  controversy  upon  what  are  called  the  "Uni- 
ties." The  main  point  for  the  student  to  remember  is 
that  good  plays  have  been  written  which  preserve  all 
three  unities,  but  that  to  be  a  good  drama  a  play  must 
observe  the  unity  of  action. 

The  unities  are  as  follows :  — 

1.  Action. 

A  play  must  have  unity  of  plot  or  action  and 
must  eliminate  all  incidents  or  characters  which  are 
not  necessary  to  the  development  of  the  plot. 

Aristotle  in  his  Poetics  (chap.  8)  says:  "The  story,  as 
an  imitation  of  action,  must  represent  one  action,  a  com- 
plete whole,  with  its  several  incidents  so  closely  con- 
nected that  the  transposal  or  withdrawal  of  any  one  of 
them  will  disjoin  and  dislocate  the  whole.  For  that 
which  makes  no  perceptible  difference  by  its  presence  or 
absence  is  no  real  part  of  the  whole." 


298  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

2.  Time. 

The  time  of  stage  representation  should  be  the 
same  as  that  occupied  by  the  original  events  por- 
trayed. 

3.  Place. 

The  scene  represented  on  the  stage  should  not 
change  throughout  the  play. 

Note.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  unity  of  action  goes  back 
to  the  time  of  Aristotle  and  is  the  only  one  which  is  essential  in 
dramatic  construction.  In  the  Poetics  there  is  only  one  refer- 
ence (chap.  5)  to  the  time  limit  of  the  action  of  Greek  tragedy, 
and  no  mention  of  the  unity  of  place.  It  was  the  Italian  critics 
of  the  Renaissance  who  formulated  the  unity  of  time  (about 
1540),  and  from  it,  by  inference,  the  unity  of  place  (about 
1570).  Plays  have  been  produced  which  observe  all  three 
unities,  and  others  which  reject  the  unity  of  time  and  place, 
as  for  example,  some  of  Shakespeare's  greatest  plays.  The 
question  of  the  three  unities  has  now  largely  only  an  histori- 
cal interest. 

6.  Plot  structure. 

The  plot  of  a  play  may  be  roughly  analyzed  into 
the  following  steps:  — 

1.  Initial  situation. 

This  stage  indicates  very  briefly  the  state  of 
affairs  at  the  outset,  before  there  is  any  disturb- 
ance or  complication  of  the  action. 

2.  Introduction  of  the  complication. 

This  stage  brings  in  the  new  element  which  is  at 
variance  with  the  previous  situation  and  which 
causes,  immediately  or  ultimately,  a  complication 
or  problem  which  has  to  be  resolved. 

3.  Development  to  the  climax. 

This  stage  often  constitutes  by  far  the  longest 
part  of  the  play.    It  traces  the  progressive  com- 


THE  DRAMA  299 

plication  of  the  action  up  to  the  point  of  greatest 
suspense,  doubt,  struggle,  or  intensity. 

4.  Denouement  or  conclusion. 

This  stage  indicates  the  results  which  necessar- 
ily follow  after  the  climax  has  been  reached.  It 
either  has  inevitableness  or  else  involves  aD  ele- 
ment of  surprise.  In  length  it  is  much  shorter  than 
the  preceding  stage. 

How  to  study  a  play. 

The  method  of  studying  a  play  will  depend  to  a 
certain  extent  upon  whether  the  play  is  seen  on  the 
stage  or  is  read  in  a  book.  The  former  method  has 
the  advantage  of  vividness  of  impression;  the  latter, 
that  of  leisure  to  master  and  compare  details.  When 
it  is  possible,  the  student  of  the  drama  will  find  the 
most  satisfactory  procedure  to  be  the  following :  first 
go  to  see  the  play;  then  read  it  carefully;  finally, 
go  to  see  the  play  again.  In  the  thorough  study  of 
a  play  the  suggestions  given  below  should  be  applied 
as  far  as  possible :  — 

A.  How  to  study  a  play  in  the  theater 

1.  Do  not  read  the  play  beforehand.  Avoid  reading 
about  it  or  hearing  about  it,  so  that  you  will  see  it 
for  the  first  time  with  a  perfectly  open  mind  and 
without  preconceptions  as  to  characters  or  action. 

2.  Get  to  your  seat  in  the  theater  in  time  to  master 
the  program  before  the  curtain  rises.  Note  who 
the  author  is,  and  whether  he  has  suggested  by  a 
subtitle  the  theme  of  the  play.  Be  prepared  to 
identify  the  characters,  either  by  noting  the  order 
of  their  appearance  as  indicated  on  the  program 
or  by  associating  the  names  with  the  parts  that 


300  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

they  play.  Note  any  hints  as  to  relationships  of 
characters.  Are  there  many  or  few  actors?  Which 
seem  most  important?  Which  least?  Why? 

3.  How  many  acts  are  there?  Is  their  main  subject 
indicated?  How  often  does  the  scene  change? 
Can  you  suggest  any  reason  for  this  change?  Is 
any  lapse  of  time  indicated?  Does  this  lapse  in- 
volve hours,  days,  months,  or  years? 

4.  When  the  curtain  rises,  what  first  strikes  your 
attention?  Are  there  any  characters  on  the  stage? 
Who  speaks  first?  What  are  the  first  words  said? 
What  is  their  significance?  What  information  do 
you  get  about  the  characters  and  the  situation 
from  the  first  scene  of  the  first  act?  Is  there  any 
suggestion  of  future  complication?  How  is  this 
foreshadowing  introduced?  By  whom?  Will  the 
problem  depend  upon  character  or  upon  situation? 

5.  How  is  the  stage  arranged  for  each  scene  or  act? 
What  information  is  given  by  the  setting?  Does 
the  scene  afford  emphasis  or  contrast  for  charac- 
ters or  action?  Why  is  a  change  of  scene  neces- 
sary? Are  the  setting  and  lighting  conventional  or 
original?  Is  there  any  attempt  at  realism  or 
artistic  effect?  Does  the  scene  overbalance  the 
characters  in  interest? 

6.  When  is  the  complicating  element  definitely  intro- 
duced into  the  plot?  By  whom?  Is  the  effect  im- 
mediately seen?  Does  the  problem  depend  upon 
external  circumstances,  on  social  conventions,  on 
racial  or  class  prejudice,  or  on  individual  charac- 
teristics or  peculiarities?  Does  the  action  progress 
rapidly  or  slowly?  By  imperceptible  degrees  or  by 
striking  surprises?  When  is  the  climax  reached? 
What  effect  does  it  have  upon  you?    Are  you 


THE  DRAMA  301 

moved,  frightened,  excited,  depressed,  sympathe- 
tic, repelled?  Does  the  climax  impress  you  as 
being  inevitable  or  as  accidental?  In  which  act  is 
it?  Near  the  beginning,  middle,  or  end  of  the  act? 
7.  How  rapidly  does  the  play  come  to  a  conclusion 
after  the  climax?  Is  the  ending  perfectly  defin- 
ite, clearly  suggested,  or  left  to  the  imagination? 
Does  the  ending  seem  a  necessary  consequence  of 
what  preceded?  What  impression  is  left  upon 
you  after  the  final  curtain?  Would  you  like  to  see 
the  play  again?  Would  you  advise  others  to  see 
it? 

B.  How  to  read  a  play 

In  addition  to  the  general  hints  given  for  seeing  a 
play  on  the  stage,  the  student  who  reads  a  play 
should  pay  some  attention  to  the  following  sugges- 
tions :  — 

1.  Try  to  visualize  the  characters  so  that  you  know 
them  as  persons  and  not  merely  as  names  in  a 
book. 

2.  Make  a  rough  sketch  plan  of  the  stage  for  each  act, 
and  indicate  in  some  convenient  way  the  relative 
position  of  the  chief  characters  at  important  points 
in  the  play. 

3.  Try  always  to  imagine  the  tone  of  voice,  gestures, 
position,  and  facial  expression  accompanying  each 
speech. 

4.  Note  how  the  significance  of  many  speeches  depends 
upon  the  interpretation  given  to  them  by  the  actor 
who  plays  the  part.  Identify  yourself  with  each 
character  in  turn  and  try  to  think  and  to  feel  as 
that  character  does  at  the  moment  he  is  speaking. 


302  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


EXERCISES 


1.  Procure  clippings  of  all  the  New  York  or  London  first-night 
notices  of  a  new  play,  and  compare  (1)  length;  (2)  topics 
included;  (3)  order;  (4)  general  verdict;  (5)  specific  praise  or 
condemnation  of  plot,  scenery,  acting;  (6)  indication  of 
critic's  personality  in  point  of  view,  etc. 

2.  Clip  from  your  local  newspaper  the  dramatic  notices  of  plays 
for  a  month,  and  see  if  you  can  detect  any  differences  of  treat- 
ment given  to  Shakespeare,  a  modern  social  drama,  a  comic 
opera,  a  melodrama,  etc.  Try  to  account  for  these  differences. 
Is  each  type  of  play  entitled  to  a  different  kind  of  criticism? 

3.  Attend  a  first-night  performance  of  a  play,  or  the  first  per- 
formance in  your  town,  and  imagine  yourself  to  be  the  dra- 
matic critic.  After  the  play  write  a  notice  of  it,  and  next  day 
compare  your  criticism  with  that  printed  in  the  newspaper. 
What  differences  do  you  notice  in  length,  topics  included, 
style,  etc.?  What  did  the  newspaper  critic  see  that  you  failed 
to  notice?  How  do  your  opinions  differ  from  his? 

4.  After  exercise  3  go  to  see  the  same  play  again.  Notice  the 
number  of  things  that  escaped  your  attention  before.  Is  the 
emphasis  or  importance  of  facts  changed?  What  effect  has 
this  second  seeing  upon  your  judgment?  Without  reference  to 
your  previous  criticism,  write  another  and  compare  it  with 
your  earlier  version  and  with  the  newspaper  report. 

5.  From  one  of  the  dramatic  magazines  or  from  the  advertising 
columns  of  a  large  city  paper  make  lists  of  the  titles  of  (a) 
plays;  (b)  comic  operas.  Are  there  any  noticeable  differences? 
Which  do  you  consider  good  and  which  bad?  Assign  definite 
reasons  for  your  judgment  in  each  case.  Would  any  of  these 
make  good  titles  for  short  stories?  Try  to  arrange  the  titles  of 
the  plays  in  order  of  merit.  What  standards  of  judgment  are 
involved? 

6.  After  seeing  a  play,  write  a  300  word  summary  of  the  whole 
main  action,  including  only  those  facts  which  are  necessary  to 
show  that  the  play  has  a  unified  plot. 

7.  Write,  in  the  form  of  a  narrative,  the  action  of  any  one  act  of 
a  play  which  you  have  recently  seen. 

8.  Describe  the  stage  setting  of  the  first  scene  of  some  play  as  it 
appears  when  the  curtain  rises.  Pay  attention  to  such  details 
as :  outdoors  or  indoors,  general  character  of  scene,  dominant 


THE  DRAMA  303 

impression,  lighting,  arrangement  of  details,  characters  pres- 
ent, suggestions  of  realism  or  artificiality,  etc. 
9.  In  any  play  which  you  see  or  read,  notice  whether  each 
change  of  scene  or  step  in  the  action  is  the  consequence  of 
what  preceded  or  is  merely  subsequent  to  it.  If  the  latter  is 
the  case,  how  is  unity  secured? 

10.  Go  to  see  a  good  moving-picture  play.  Wherein  does  its  gen- 
eral structure  differ  from  that  of  a  stage  play?  How  is  the 
limitation  of  silence  overcome?  What  differences  are  there  in 
the  acting?  What  effect  has  the  freedom  of  change  in  scene 
upon  the  structure  and  the  choice  of  material?  How  often 
does  the  scene  change?  Is  this  necessary  to  explain  the 
action,  or  is  its  purpose  to  add  variety?  Is  the  scene  used 
largely  for  its  own  sake  or  because  it  is  vitally  related  to  the 
plot?  Make  a  list  of  the  chief  differences  that  you  notice  in 
general  between  these  two  kinds  of  plays. 

11.  Read  one  of  the  following  plays  and  (1)  analyze  its  plot 
structure;  (2)  write  a  criticism  upon  it;  (3)  contrast  it  with  a 
play  by  Shakespeare  or  Moliere  with  which  you  are  familiar: 

Reading  list  of  plays 

Chief  Contemporary  Dramatists.  Thomas  H.  Dickinson,  Ed. 

Drama  League  Series. 

Polite  Farces.   Arnold  Bennett. 

The  Earth.   Bernard  Fagan. 

The  Silver  Box.  John  Galsworthy. 

Justice.  John  Galsworthy. 

The  Good-Natured  Man.   Oliver  Goldsmith. 

She  Sloops  to  Conquer.  Oliver  Goldsmith. 

New  Comedies.   Lady  Gregory. 

Hannele.  Gerhart  Hauptmann. 

The  Sunken  Bell.   Gerhart  Hauptmann. 

The  Elevator.   W.  D.  Howells. 

The  Parlor  Car.  W.  D.  Howells. 

The  Sleeping-Car.   W.  D.  Howells. 

A  Doll's  House.   Henrik  Ibsen. 

Daisy  Miller.   Henry  James. 

The  Case  of  Rebellious  Susan.   H.  A.  Jones. 

Aglavaine  and  Selysette.   Maurice  Maeterlinck. 

The  Blind.   Maurice  Maeterlinck. 

The  Blue  Bird.   Maurice  Maeterlinck. 

The  Intruder.   Maurice  Maeterlinck. 

Pelleas  and  Melisande.  Maurice  Maeterlinck. 


304  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

Sister  Beatrice.   Maurice  Maeterlinck. 

The  Tragedy  of  Nan.  John  Masefield. 

The  Faith  Healer.   William  Vaughn  Moody. 

The  Piper.  Josephine  Preston  Peabody. 

The  Wolf  of  Gubbio.   Josephine  Preston  Peabody. 

Paolo  and  Francesca.   Stephen  Phillips. 

The  Sin  of  David.   Stephen  Phillips. 

Ulysses.  Stephen  Phillips. 

Sweet  Lavender.   A.  W.  Pinero. 

The  Thunderbolt.   A.  W.  Pinero. 

L'Aiglon.   Edmond  Rostand. 

Cyrano  de  Bergerac.   Edmond  Rostand. 

Chantecler.   Edmond  Rostand. 

The  Black  Madonna.   William  Sharp. 

Arms  and  the  Man.   G.  B.  Shaw. 

Ccesar  and  Cleopatra.   G.  B.  Shaw. 

Fanny's  First  Play.   G.  B.  Shaw. 

Pygmalion.  G.  B.  Shaw. 

The  Rivals.   R.  B.  Sheridan. 

The  School  for  Scaridal.  R.  B.  Sheridan. 

Easter.   August  Strindberg. 

The  Far-aivay  Princess.   Hermann  Sudermann. 

Playboy  of  the  Western  World.  J.  M.  Synge. 

Riders  to  the  Sea.  J.  M.  Synge. 

Shadow  of  the  Glen.  J.  M.  Synge. 

Tinker's  Wedding.  J.  M.  Synge. 

Well  of  the  Saints.   J.  M.  Synge. 

Cathleen  Ni  Hoxdihan.  W.  B.  Yeats. 

Deirdre.  W.  B.  Yeats. 

The  King's  Threshold.   W.  B.  Yeats. 

The  Land  of  Heart's  Desire.  W.  B.  Yeats. 

The  Shadowy  Waters.   W.  B.  Yeats. 

12.  Make  a  satisfactory  plan  of  the  stage  arrangement  for  the 
opening  scene  of  one  of  the  plays  in  the  above  list. 

13.  Indicate  on  a  plan  of  the  stage  the  relative  position  of  the 
characters  in  some  striking  scene  of  the  play  or  at  the  climax 
of  the  action. 

14.  Study  all  the  entrances  and  exits  in  a  play,  and  determine 
whether  they  seem  accidental,  sufficiently  motivated,  or 
artificially  managed.  When  are  most  characters  on  the  stage? 
When  fewest?  Why? 


THE  DRAMA  305 

TOPICS  FOR  CLASS  DISCUSSION 

1.  "The  more  people  argue  about  the  characters  and  wonder 
what  happens  to  them  after  the  curtain  falls,  the  greater  will 
be  the  demand  at  the  box  office."  Newspaper  clipping. 

2.  "There  is,  then,  this  fundamental  difference  between  tragedy 
and  comedy:  a  difference  in  point  of  view  —  a  difference  not 
in  the  thing  as  perceived  by  the  eye,  but  in  the  thing  as  con- 
ceived by  the  mind."  E.  Woodbridge:  The  Drama,  its  Law 
and  Technique. 

3.  "  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  unravelling  of  the  plot,  no 
less  than  the  complication,  must  arise  out  of  the  plot  itself.  It 
must  not  be  brought  about  by  the  Deus  ex  Machina.  Within 
the  action  there  must  be  nothing  irrational."  Aristotle: 
Poetics. 

4.  "The  stage  indeed  may  be  considered  as  the  republic  of  ac- 
tive literature,  and  its  history  as  the  history  of  the  state." 
Edmund  Burke  :  Letter  to  Edmund  Malone. 

5.  "When  my  subject  is  good,  when  my  scenario  is  very  clear, 
very  complete,  I  might  have  the  play  written  by  my  servant; 
he  would  be  sustained  by  the  situation;  —  and  the  play  would 
succeed."  Scribe. 

6.  "It  is  difficult  to  exaggerate  the  necessity  of  an  exposition  so 
clear  that  no  misunderstanding  is  possible,  even  on  the  part 
of  a  preoccupied  spectator."  Brander  Matthews:  A  Study 
of  the  Drama. 

7.  "  In  general,  only  a  play  suited  to  presentation  on  the  stage  is 
likely  to  secure  for  a  reader  the  visualization,  the  impersona- 
tions, the  illusion  of  actuality,  similar  to  those  experienced  in 
the  theater."  A.  H.  Thorndike:  Tragedy. 

8.  "The  moment  a  dramatist  gives  up  accidents  and  catas- 
trophes, and  takes  'slices  of  life'  as  his  material,  he  finds 
himself  committed  to  plays  that  have  no  endings."  G.  B. 
Shaw:  Preface  to  Brieux'  Three  Plays. 

9.  "The  truth  is  that  the  spectators  are  always  in  their  senses, 
and  know,  from  the  first  act  to  the  last,  that  the  stage  is  only 
a  stage  and  that  the  players  are  only  players."  Samuel 
Johnson  :  Preface  to  Shakespeare. 

10.  "  Beginners  confound  movement  —  the  coming  and  going  of 
characters,  the  crossing  and  recrossing  the  stage,  and  so  on,  — 
with  action;  but  action  is  the  actual  doing  of  something,  and 


306  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

dramatic  action  is  the  doing  of  something  really  significant." 
Arlo  Bates  :  Talks  on  Writing  English. 

11.  "  Distinct  from  the  Segregated  Drama  (a  fine  art  for  the  few) 
and  Vaudeville  (a  heterogeneous  entertainment  for  the  many) 
exists,  potential,  a  third  ideal:  the  ideal  of  the  Drama  of 
Democracy  —  the  drama  as  a  fine  art  for  the  many."  Perct 
Mackaye:   The  Play  House  and  the  Play. 

12.  "It  has  always  been  a  matter  of  argument  whether  or  no 
Acting  is  an  art,  and  therefore  whether  the  Actor  is  an  Artist, 
or  something  quite  different."  E.  G.  Craig:  On  the  Art  of  the 
Theater. 

13.  "Acting,  for  all  its  naturalness,  must  not  be  really  natural;  it 
must  retain  the  conventions  that  art  requires."  C.  H.  Caffin: 
The  Appreciation  of  the  Drama. 

14.  "Though  the  objects  themselves  may  be  painful  to  see,  we 
delight  to  view  the  most  realistic  representations  of  them  in 
art."  Aristotle:  Poetics. 

15.  "Absurdity  is  the  one  thing  that  does  not  matter  on  the  stage, 
provided  it  is  not  psychological  absurdity."  G.  B.  Shaw: 
Dramatic  Opinions  and  Essays. 

16.  "Tragedy  is  essentially  an  imitation  not  of  persons  but  of 
action  and  life,  of  happiness  and  misery."  Aristotle  :  Poetics. 

17.  "Unless  comedy  touches  me  as  well  as  amuses  me,  it  leave* 
me  with  a  sense  of  having  wasted  my  evening."  G.  B.  Shaw: 
Dramatic  Opinions  and  Essays. 

18.  Write  out  in  the  form  of  directions  to  the  members  of  a  college 
dramatic  club  any  suggestions  regarding  acting  which  you  may 
gather  from  the  following  speech  in  Hamlet,  Act  III,  Sc.  2: 

"Speak  the  speech,  I  pray  you,  as  I  pronounced  it  to  you, 
trippingly  on  the  tongue ;  but  if  you  mouth  it,  as  many  of  your 
players  do,  I  had  as  lief  the  town-crier  spoke  my  lines.  Nor  do 
not  saw  the  air  too  much  with  your  hand,  thus,  but  use  all 
gently;  for  in  the  very  torrent,  tempest,  and,  as  I  may  say, 
whirlwind  of  your  passion,  you  must  acquire  and  beget  a  tem- 
perance that  may  give  it  smoothness.  0,  it  offends  me  to  the 
soul  to  hear  a  robustious  periwig-pated  fellow  tear  a  passion 
to  tatters,  to  very  rags,  to  split  the  ears  of  the  groundlings, 
who  for  the  most  part  are  capable  of  nothing  but  inexplicable 
dumb-shows  and  noise ;  I  would  have  such  a  fellow  whipped 
for  o'erdoing  Termagant;  it  out-herods  Herod:  pray  you, 
avoid  it Be  not  too  tame,  neither,  but  let  your  own  discr* 


THE  DRAMA  307 

tion  be  your  tutor :  suit  the  action  to  the  word,  the  word  to  the 
action;  with  this  special  observance,  that  you  o'erstep  not  the 
modesty  of  nature:  for  anything  so  overdone  is  from  the  pur- 
pose of  playing,  whose  end,  both  at  the  first  and  now,  was  and 
is  to  hold,  as  't  were,  the  mirror  up  to  nature;  to  show  virtue 
her  own  feature,  scorn  her  own  image,  and  the  very  age  and 
body  of  the  time  his  form  and  pressure.  Now  this  overdone  or 
come  tardy  off,  though  it  make  the  unskillful  laugh,  cannot 
but  make  the  judicious  grieve;  the  censure  of  the  which  one 
must  in  your  allowance  o'erweigh  a  whole  theatre  of  others. 
0,  there  have  been  players  that  I  have  seen  play,  and  heard 
others  praise,  and  that  highly,  not  to  speak  it  profanely,  that, 
neither  having  the  accent  of  Christians  nor  the  gait  of  a  Chris- 
tian, pagan,  nor  man,  have  so  strutted  and  bellowed  that  I 
have  thought  some  of  Nature's  journeymen  had  made  men 
and  not  made  them  well,  they  imitated  humanity  so  abomin- 
ably. .  .  .  And  let  those  that  play  your  clowns  speak  no  more 
than  is  set  down  for  them ;  for  there  be  of  them  that  will  them- 
selves laugh,  to  set  on  some  quantity  of  barren  spectators  to 
laugh  too;  though,  in  the  meantime,  some  necessary  question 
of  the  play  be  then  to  be  considered:  that's  villanous,  and 
shows  a  most  pitiful  ambition  in  the  fool  that  uses  it." 

REFERENCES 

Archer,  William.   Playmaking;  a  Manual  of  Craftsmanship. 
Aristotle.  On  the  Art  of  Poetry  (translated  by  Ingram  Bywater). 
Aristotle.   The  Poetics  (translated  by  D.  S.  Margoliouth). 
Aristotle.    Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art  (translated  by  S.  H. 

Butcher;. 
Baker,  G.  P.    The  Technique  of  the  Drama. 
Browne,  V.  D.  Secrets  of  Scene-Painting  and  Stage  Effects. 
Burton,  Richard.  The  New  American  Drama. 
Caffin,  C.  H.   The  Appreciation  of  the  Drama. 
Craig,  E.G.  On  the  Art  of  the  Theater. 

Crashaw,  W.  H.   The  Interpretation  of  Literature,  pp.  129-52. 
Dukes,  Ashley.    Modern  Dramatists.  > 

Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold.    Manual  of  Composition  and 

Rhetoric,  pp.  267-73. 
Fowler,  N.  C.    The  Art  of  Story-Writing,  pp.  58-86. 
Hale,  E.  E.    Dramatists  of  To-day. 
Hamilton,  Clayton.    The  Theory  of  the  Theater. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.   Rhetoric  and  the  Study  of  Literature,  pp.  169-85. 
Hbnnequin,  Alfred.   The  Art  of  Playwriting. 


308  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

Hunt,  E.  R.   The  Play  of  To-day. 

Jones,  H.  A.   Foundations  of  a  National  Drama. 

Mackaye,  Percy.    The  Playhouse  and  the  Play. 

Matthews,  Brandek.   A  Study  of  the  Drama. 

Moderwell,  H.  K.     The  Theater  of  To-day. 

Palmer,  John.    The  Future  of  the  Theater. 

Price,  W.  T.    The  Technique  of  the  Drama. 

Ruhl,  Arthur.    Second  Nights. 

Sheran,  W.  H.  A  Handbook  of  Literary  Criticism,  pp.  404-65. 

Woodbridge,  Elizabeth.   The  Drama;  its  Law  and  Technique. 

9.  TRANSLATION 

1.  Definition. 

Translation  means  carrying  over  into  a  different 
language  ideas  which  are  already  expressed  in  one 
language.  The  process  is  very  much  the  same  as  that 
employed  in  transforming  pictures  into  language,  as 
in  description,  or  ideas  into  language,  as  in  exposi- 
tion. The  writer  may  translate  a  foreign  language 
into  his  native  tongue,  his  native  tongue  into  a  foreign 
language,  or  one  foreign  language  into  another. 

2.  Kinds  of  translation. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  translation :  — 

1.  Literal,  in  which  the  translator  gives,  word  for 
word,  the  equivalent  meaning  of  the  terms  in  the 
original.  This  process  is  really  one  of  substitution. 

2.  Literary,  in  which  the  meaning  of  the  original  is 
closely  adhered  to,  but  is  expressed  in  a  style  that 
is  finished  and  that  gives  as  much  as  possible  the 
flavor  of  the  original. 

3.  Free,  in  which  the  language  of  the  original  is  not 
strictly  followed,  but  in  which  the  important  ideas 
are  given. 

3.  Prerequisites  for  good  translation. 

1.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  English,  including  a  wide 
vocabulary,  a  familiarity  with  idiom,  ability  to 


TRANSLATION  309 

apply  with  discrimination  standards  of  usage,  and 
skill  in  the  selection  of  synonymous  expressions. 

2.  A  command  cf  the  foreign  language  used.  This  in- 
volves a  knowledge  of  its  resources,  limitations, 
idioms,  history,  and  individuality. 

3.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject  dealt  with 
in  the  text  to  be  translated.  This  is  especially 
important  in  the  case  of  scientific,  philosophical,  or 
technical  work  of  any  kind. 

4.  A  sympathetic  insight  into  the  mind  of  the  author, 
and  the  power  of  self-identification  with  him. 

5.  A  sense  of  literary  honor  which  will  prevent  the 
translator  from  giving  to  the  text  a  wrong  mean- 
ing or  a  misleading  interpretation,  even  by  impli- 
cation. Personal  bias  has  no  place  in  accurate 
translation. 

6.  Skill,  ease,  taste,  grace,  and  adaptability  in  the 
expression  of  ideas  in  English. 

Suggestions  for  translating. 

1.  Remember  that  a  knowledge  of  the  grammar  and 
the  vocabulary  of  a  foreign  tongue  is  only  the  be- 
ginning of  translation. 

2.  Be  careful  not  to  read  your  own  ideas  into  the  text, 
or  to  let  your  personal  preferences  influence  you 
in  your  choice  of  a  word  that  is  not  fair  to  your 
text. 

3.  Sometimes  it  will  be  necessary  to  expand  a  con- 
densed expression  in  the  text,  because  some  lan- 
guages are  more  economical  of  words  than  others. 
Avoid,  however,  the  mistake  of  too  free  a  render- 
ing. 

4.  Do  not  introduce  into  your  translation  ideas  that 
are  not  actually  stated  or  implied  in  the  text;  and 


310  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 

avoid  the  opposite  fault  of  omitting  matter  that  is 
in  the  text. 

5.  Preserve  whenever  you  can  the  rhetorical  figures 
of  the  original. 

6.  Exercise  always  a  careful  discrimination  between 
similar  words,  a  judicious  selection  of  terms,  and 
clearness  and  precision  in  expression. 

5.  Common  faults  in  translating. 

1.  Avoid  the  use  of  an  abrupt,  disconnected,  jerky, 
choppy  style.  Remember  that  you  cannot  always 
represent  an  adjective  by  an  adjective,  a  phrase 
by  a  phrase,  or  a  clause  by  a  clause.  The  charac- 
ter of  the  language  may  necessitate  expansion  or 
compression.  Your  translation  should  read  like 
good  English. 

2.  Avoid  too  long,  intricate,  involved,  or  clumsy  sen- 
tences. Break  these  up.  Remember  that  you  are 
writing  English,  and  that  simplicity  and  clearness 
are  desirable  qualities.  Your  grammatical  con- 
structions should  be  such  as  are  current. 

3.  Avoid  the  passive,  the  pronoun  "one,"  and  the  use 
of  pronouns  with  no  antecedent  expressed. 

4.  Avoid  tautology,  alliterative  groups  of  words,  and 
inharmonious  sounds. 

5.  Avoid  unnecessary  wordiness,  the  illogical  arrange- 
ment of  words,  or  an  inexact  sequence  of  ideas. 

6.  Avoid  solecisms,  anachronisms  in  the  use  of  words, 
and  slang  or  colloquial  words  in  the  midst  of  a 
serious  text. 

7.  Avoid  a  too  literal  translation  of  foreign  idiomatic 
expressions,  or  a  failure  to  recognize  an  expression 
as  an  idiom. 

"A  translator  that  would  write  with  any  force  or 


TRANSLATION  311 

spirit  of  an  original  must  never  dwell  on  the  words  of  his 
author.  He  ought  to  possess  himself  entirely  and  per- 
fectly comprehend  the  genius  and  sense  of  his  author, 
the  nature  of  the  subject  and  the  terms  of  the  art  or  sub- 
ject treated  of;  and  then  he  will  express  himself  as 
justly,  and  with  as  much  life,  as  if  he  wrote  an  original; 
whereas  he  who  copies  word  for  word  loses  all  the  spirit 
in  the  tedious  transfusion."  Dryden. 

EXERCISES 

Note  :  In  all  exercises  in  translation  from  classical  or  foreign 
languages,  standard  English  should  be  demanded.  The  fol- 
lowing exercises  are  suggested  as  supplementary :  — 

1.  Translate  a  page  from  one  foreign  or  classical  language  di- 
rectly into  another  without  first  expressing  the  ideas  in  Eng- 
lish. Try  not  to  think  about  English  words.  After  a  week, 
turn  both  the  original  and  your  translation  into  English  and 
compare  the  results.  Try  translating  in  this  way  Latin  into 
German,  Greek  into  French,  French  into  German,  Italian  into 
Latin,  etc. 

2.  Translate  a  chapter  of  the  New  Testament  in  French  or  Ger- 
man into  modern  English.  Compare  your  translation  with  the 
Authorized  and  with  the  Revised  Versions. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  foreign  expressions  for  which  it  is  difficult  to  find 
an  exact  equivalent. 

4.  Try  to  translate  some  of  the  modern  French  or  German  comic 
papers  into  English,  and  account  for  any  difficulties  that  you 
have. 

5.  Write  a  letter  in  English  and  in  two  other  languages,  and  note 
the  differences  that  are  demanded  by  the  peculiarities  of  these 
languages. 

6.  Translate  from  a  foreign  language  a  stanza  of  poetry  or  a  son- 
net into  (a)  English  prose,  (6)  English  verse,  (c)  foreign  prose. 
Compare  the  results. 

REFERENCES 

Bates,  Arlo.   Talks  on  Writing  English,  vol.  i,  pp.  269-84. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.  Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  pp.  269-74. 
Cooper,  F.  T.  Craftsmanship  in  Writing,  pp.  243-68. 


CORRESPONDENCE 
I.  SOCIAL  AND   FRIENDLY  LETTERS 

I.  Social  notes  are  of  two  kinds,  —  formal  and  informal. 

A  formal  note  is  written  in  the  third  person,  and  is  ex- 
pressed in  set,  conventional  phraseology.  Formal  notes  are 
used  chiefly  for  invitations  and  replies  to  invitations. 

Below  are  given  several  examples  of  the  sort  of  social 
correspondence  in  which  the  phrasing  is  determined  by  con- 
vention. Invitations  of  this  nature  are  often  engraved;  in 
which  case,  spaces  are  left  for  the  insertion  of  the  names  of 
those  invited. 


42  JlEtotgan  place 

[This  is  usually  an  engraved  address.] 


Mrs.  Edward  Forbes  Foster 
requests  the  pleasure  of 

Miss  Lexington's 

company  at  dinner  on 

Wednesday,  December  the  eighteenth 

at  seven  o'clock 


SOCIAL  AND  FRIENDLY  LETTERS 


313 


25  Valentine  JlVicnuE 


Miss  Lexington 

accepts  with  pleasure 

the  invitation  of 

Mrs.  Foster 

for  dinner  on 

Wednesday,  December  eighteenth 


December  eleventh 


Note:  In  the  above  reply,  it  is  permissible  to  use  the 
phrases  "to  dinner,"  and  "the  kind  invitation." 


25  Valentine  Jltoenue 


Miss  Lexington 

regrets  that  a  previous  engagement 

prevents  her  accepting 

Mrs.  Foster's 

kind  invitation  to  dinner 

on  Wednesday,  December  the  eighteenth 


December  eleventh 


Note  :  In  the  above  form,  it  is  permissible  to  say  "prevents 
her  from  accepting"  or  "makes  it  impossible  for  her  to  accept." 


314  CORRESPONDENCE 

2.  Informal  invitations  are  usually  brief  and  friendly, 
with  a  personal  flavor. 

Dear  Miss  Featherstone,  — 

My  daughter  and  I  would  enjoy  hav- 
ing you  dine  with  us  to-morrow  evening  at  seven 
o'clock.  May  we  not  look  forward  to  seeing  you? 
Sincerely  yours, 

Marion  Reeves  Morton.- 
Tuesday. 

Below  are  replies  to  the  invitation  printed  above:  — 

Dear  Mrs.  Morton,  — 

It  will  give  me  great  pleasure  to 
have  dinner  with  you  and  Miss  Helen  to-morrow 
evening.  I  have  some  messages  for  you  from  our 
common  friends  in  Rochester,  where  I  have  been 
visiting  for  the  last  two  days.  I  am  sure  you  will  re- 
joice in  the  good  news  that  I  have  to  impart. 
Sincerely  yours, 

Eleanor  Featherstone. 
Tuesday. 

Dear  Mrs.  Morton,  — 

I  am  extremely  sorry  that  I  cannot 
have  dinner  with  you  and  your  daughter  to-morrow 
evening.  I  have  promised  to  go  out  to  Forest  Park 
for  the  week-end.  Please  convey  my  regrets  to  Miss 
Helen. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Eleanor  Featherstone. 
Tuesday. 

3.  Informal  notes  are  appropriate  to  a  large  number  of 
occasions.  Since  they  must  be  adapted  to  the  persons  and 
the  situations  involved,  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  definite 
directions  for  writing  them.  On  page  315  are  printed  sev- 
eral which  may  serve  as  suggestions:  — 


SOCIAL  AND  FRIENDLY  LETTERS  315 

James  Russell  Lowell  to  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  in- 
troducing William  Dean  Howells 

Cambridge,  August  5,  1860. 

My  dear  Hawthorne  :  — 

I  have  no  masonic  claim  upon  you  except  com- 
munity of  tobacco,  and  the  young  man  who  brings 
this  does  not  smoke. 

But  he  wants  to  look  at  you,  which  will  do  you  no 
harm  and  him  a  great  deal  of  good. 

His  name  is  Howells,  and  he  is  a  fine  young  fel- 
low, and  has  written  several  poems  in  the  Atlan- 
tic, which  of  course  you  never  read,  because  you 
don't  do  such  things  yourself,  and  are  old  enough 
to  know  better.  ...  If  my  judgment  is  good  for 
anything,  this  youth  has  more  in  him  than  any  of 
our  younger  fellows  in  the  way  of  rhyme. 

Of  course  he  can't  hope  to  rival  the  Consule 
Planco  men.  Therefore,  let  him  look  at  you  and 
charge  it 

To  yours  always, 

J.  R.  Lowell. 

George  William  Curtis  to  James  Russell  Lowell, 
who  has  just  been  appointed  Minister  to  Spain. 

Ashfield,  July  9,  1877. 

My  dear  James:  — 

I  must  not  let  you  go  without  a  word  of  love  and 
farewell,  although  I  have  meant  to  write  you  a 
letter.  I  told  Charles  that  on  every  ground,  except 
that  you  go  away,  I  am  delighted  that  you  are 
going.  With  me  the  case  is  very  different.  I  hap- 
pen to  be  just  in  the  position  where  I  can  be  of  infin- 
itely greater  service  to  the  good  old  cause,  and  to 
the  administration  that  is  meaning  and  trying  to 
advance  it,  than  I  could  possibly  be  abroad.  No- 
thing has  done  this  administration  more  good, 
nor  rejoiced  so  many  hearts  as  your  appoint- 
ment. You  will  be  blown  on  to  your  castles  in 
Spain  by  a  whirlwind  of  benedictions. 
Affectionately  yours, 

G.  W.  C. 


316  CORRESPONDENCE 

4.  A  reply  to  a  social  letter  should  express  the  same 

degree  of  formality  that  is  exhibited  in  the  note  to  which 

it  is  an  answer. 

A  note  in  the  third  person  will  be  answered  in  the  third  per- 
son; an  informal  friendly  letter  will  be  answered  in  a  somewhat 
free  and  easy  manner. 

5.  When  one  is  in  doubt  as  to  the  degree  of  ease  which  he 
may  permit  himself  in  a  social  note,  he  does  better  to  err 
on  the  side  of  formality  than  on  the  side  of  familiarity. 

This  point  applies  particularly  to  the  matter  of  compli- 
mentary salutation  and  complimentary  close.  These  forms, 
unless  one  is  on  a  footing  of  friendship  with  his  correspondent, 
should  be  kept  simple  and  conventional. 

6.  Letters  of  any  kind,  arid  especially  those  of  a  social 
nature,  should  be  free  from  omissions  and  abbreviations. 

A  letter  like  the  following  is  as  objectionable  from  the 
standpoint  of  politeness  as  it  is  from  that  of  elegance:  — 

Dear  Friend,  — 

Y'rs  rec'd  to-day.  Thanks  for  note  of 
introduction  inclosed.  Will  send  or  take  same  to 
Bradbury  at  once.  Am  sure  this  will  be  of  service. 
No  end  grateful  to  you. 

Y'rs  resp., 

Tom  Perrot. 

If  the  above  letter  were  more  fully  and  politely  expressed,, 
it  would  be  somewhat  as  follows :  — 

Dear  Mr.  Grant,  — 

Your  letter  and  the  note  which  you 
inclosed  arrived  to-day.  I  thank  you  very  much  for 
both.  The  note  of  introduction  I  shall  take  or  send 
at  once  to  Mr.  Bradbury,  and  I  am  sure  that  it  will 
prove  helpful.  Please  let  me  tell  you  again  how 
grateful  I  am  for  your  kindness. 
Sincerely  yours, 

Thomas  M.  Perrot. 


SOCIAL  AND  FRIENDLY  LETTERS  317 

7.  In  signing  his  name,  the  writer  of  a  letter  should 

never  make  use  of  prefixes,  titles,  or  degrees. 

It  is,  in  general,  very  bad  form  to  sign  one's  name  with  any 
title  whatever.  The  following  signatures  are  bad :  — 

(a)  Very  truly  yours, 

Rev.  John  M.  Starrett. 

(b)  Sincerely  yours, 

Mrs.  Alphonso  Brown. 

(c)  Cordially  yours, 

Miss  Furlong. 

(d)  Yours  truly, 

Milton  R.  Fielding,  Ph.D. 

When  in  writing  to  a  stranger  it  is  necessary  to  indicate  how 
a  reply  should  be  addressed,  one  may  give  his  title  in  the  lower 
left-hand  corner  of  a  letter;  otherwise  one  should  use  simply  his 
own  name,  unadorned.  The  correct  forms  of  the  above  signatures 
would  be  as  follows :  — 

(a)  Very  truly  yours, 

John  M.  Starrett, 
Pastor  of  the  First  Methodist  Church. 

(b)  Sincerely  yours, 

Caroline  Davis  Brown. 
(Mrs.  Alphonso  Brown.) 

(c)  Cordially  yours, 

Emmeline  Furlong. 

(d)  Yours  truly, 

Milton  R.  Fielding. 

8.  The  address  of  a  friendly  letter  should  contain  few  or 
no  abbreviations  (except  those  regularly  allowed,  such  as 
Mr.  and  Mrs.). 

The  following  form  is  not  desirable :  — 

Rev.  CM.  Hewett, 

415  W.  45  St., 
C/o  Jas.  Mengs  N.  Y.  Cy. 

The  following  is  better :  — 

The  Reverend  Charles  M.  Hewett, 

415  West  Forty-fifth  Street, 

New  York  City. 
In  care  of  Mr.  James  Mengs. 


318  CORRESPONDENCE 

9.  In  closing  a  letter,  one  should  be  careful  to  see  that 

grammatical  constructions  are  kept  harmonious. 

There  is  likely  to  be  difficulty  with  participial  constructions 
unless  they  are  scrupulously  inspected;  the  following  is  bad: — 

Hoping  to  receive  your  order,  prompt  delivery  is  guar- 
anteed. 

Here,  hoping  is  a  dangling  participle:  it  has  no  logical 
relation  to  the  subject  delivery.  The  sentence  should  be  altered 
to:  — 

Hoping   to   receive   your   order,    we   guarantee   prompt 
delivery. 

Below  is  another  case  of  bad  participial  construction:  — 

Thanking  you  for  your  kindness, 

Yours  very  truly, 

Here  the  participle  thanking  has  nothing  to  modify.  The 
words  7  am  should  be  inserted :  — 

Thanking  you  for  your  kindness,  I  am 
Yours  very  truly, 

Caution:  Participial  constructions  have  been  so  com- 
monly and  so  badly  used  that  it  is  safe  for  the  fastidious  writer 
to  employ  them  but  sparingly;  there  are  other  forms  that  are 
simpler  and  more  dignified. 

10.  There  are  several  small  points,  not  elsewhere  spoken 
of  in  these  pages,  which  it  is  well  to  remember  in  writing 
social  or  semi-social  letters :  — 

1.  Dear  friend  as  a  salutation  and  Your  friend  as  a  compli- 
mentary close  are  not  in  good  use. 

2.  The  salutation  My  dear  Mrs.  Hamilton  is  more  formal 
than  Dear  Mrs.  Hamilton. 

3.  Yours  respectfidly  is  to  be  used  but  rarely;  it  is  appro- 
priate only  when  one  desires  to  express  respect  for  some 
one  in  a  superior  position,  of  whom  he  is  asking  a  favor. 

4.  Thanking  you  in  advance  is  not  a  desirable  phrase. 

5.  And  oblige  has  lost  its  force  through  indiscrimate  use; 
it  is  not  in  good  taste. 

6.  Sincerely,  or  Very  sincerely,  without  the  word  yours  is 
not  in  good  use. 


COMMERCIAL   CORRESPONDENCE  319 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  an  informal  note  of  invitation. 

2.  Write  an  informal  note  accepting  an  invitation. 

3.  Write  an  informal  note  declining  an  invitation. 

4.  You  have  been  spending  the  holidays  at  the  home  of  one  of 
your  friends:  write  a  note  to  your  friend's  mother,  thanking 
her  for  her  hospitality. 

5.  A  friend  of  yours  from  another  town  has  called  at  your  rooms 
while  you  were  out :  write  a  note  expressing  regret  at  not  see- 
ing the  caller. 

6.  Write  a  note  to  accompany  a  gift. 

7.  Write  a  note  of  thanks  for  a  gift. 

8.  Write  a  letter  introducing  a  friend  of  yours  to  another  friend 
who  lives  in  a  distant  city. 

9.  Write  a  note  apologizing  for  and  explaining  a  failure  to  keep 
an  appointment. 

10.  An  elderly  woman,  a  friend  of  your  family,  is  planning  to 
spend  a  day  or  two  in  your  college  town:  write  her  a  note  in 
which  you  offer  your  services  in  showing  her  about  the  city. 

11.  Write  a  note  declining  an  invitation  to  a  week-end  house- 
party. 

12.  Write  a  note  congratulating  one  of  your  college  friends  on 
winning  a  prize  or  succeeding  in  some  notable  undertaking. 

13.  Write  a  note  congratulating  a  friend  of  yours  on  his  return  to 
college  after  a  long  illness. 

14.  You  and  a  group  of  your  companions  are  planning  a  loan 
exhibit  of  antiques  for  the  benefit  of  some  charitable  institu- 
tion: write  to  a  friend  of  your  mother's,  asking  for  the  use  of 
a  certain  piece  of  furniture  or  bric-a-brac. 

15.  Write  a  note  to  accompany  the  article  when  it  is  returned. 

2.   COMMERCIAL  CORRESPONDENCE 

1.  The  chief  difference  between  social  and  commercial 
correspondence  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  latter  demands 
greater  exactness  and  stricter  formality. 

2.  Business  letters  must  show  exactness  in  facts,  clear- 
ness in  statement,  and  order  and  method  in  arrangement. 
There  should  be  no  ambiguity,  and  effort  should  be  made 


320  CORRESPONDENCE 

to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  possibility  of  misunderstand- 
ing. 

3.  It  is  therefore  necessary  in  your  answer  to  refer  defi- 
nitely to  the  date  and  subject  of  the  letter  to  which  you  are 
replying. 

4.  Every  letter  should  contain  the  following  information 
in  addition  to  the  body  of  the  letter :  — 

(1)  Full  address  of  writer. 

(2)  Date.   Prefer  March  4,  1913,  to  3/4/13. 

(3)  Full  name  and  address  of  addressee. 

(4)  Salutation  suitable  to  the  name  of  addressee. 

E.g.,  My  dear   Sir  (Madam),  Dear   Sir    (Madam), 
Gentlemen,  Dear  Sirs. 

(5)  Complimentary  close.  Do  not  end  abruptly,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  avoid  such  closes  as  those 
beginning  with  "Hoping,"  "Trusting,"  "I  am," 
"We  remain,"  and  the  conclusion,  "and  oblige." 
The  close  should  correspond  in  tone  to  the  saluta- 
tion. The  chief  forms  are:  "Yours  truly,"  "Yours 
respectfully,"  "Yours  very  truly,"  "Yours  very 
respectfully,"  or  "Truly  yours."  etc. 

(6)  A  signature  that  is  clear,  distinct,  and  complete. 
A  business  signature  should  not  change  in  form. 

5.  With  regard  to  the  mechanical  aspects  of  a  letter,  the 
following  points  should  be  noted :  — 

(1)  It  should  be  perfectly  legible,  and  neat  in  appear- 
ance. 

(2)  It  must  be  correct  in  spelling  and  punctuation, 
and  in  the  arrangement  of  address,  salutation, 
paragraphs,  and  complimentary  close.  Attention 
should  be  paid  to  evenness  in  line  endings  and 
general  spacing  on  the  page.  Avoid  the  necessity 
of  erasures  and  corrections. 


COMMERCIAL  CORRESPONDENCE  321 

(3)  A  carbon  copy  should  always  be  made  for  filing 
with  the  letter  answered  or  as  a  reliable  record 
of  agreements  and  transactions.  It  is  customary, 
in  the  correspondence  in  which  the  signature  is 
the  name  of  the  firm,  to  place  the  initials  of  the 
stenographer  and  of  the  writer  just  below  the 
lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  typewritten  letter, 
in  this  form :  — 

OVS/GP 

6.  With  regard  to  style,  the  writer  of  a  business  letter 
should  remember :  — 

(1)  Short,  clear  sentences  are  better  than  long,  in- 
volved ones.  In  dictation,  avoid  the  habit  of 
verbosity  or  tautology. 

(2)  The  letter  should  be  as  brief  as  possible,  without 
the  omission  of  necessary  words,  and  without 
curtness  or  crudity.  Try  to  say  exactly  what  you 
mean,  and  no  more  and  no  less. 

(3)  Coherence  should  be  preserved  by  dealing  com- 
pletely with  one  topic  at  a  time. 

(4)  By  thinking  beforehand,  the  necessity  of  post- 
scripts should  be  avoided. 

7«  Promptness  in  replying  and  courtesy  in  the  tone  of 
the  letter  are  essential  in  business  letters.  These  two  com- 
mercial virtues  should  be  maintained,  not  only  because 
they  are  profitable,  but  because  they  are  an  indication  of 
the  character  of  the  writer. 

8.  The  following  conventions  as  to  mechanical  style  in 
commercial  correspondence  should  be  observed :  — 

(1)  Paper  should  be  of  note  size,  5|x8  inches,  or 
letter  size,  8xl0|,  or  8|xll  inches. 


322 


CORRESPONDENCE 


(2)  Note  size  should  be  folded  twice,  thus: 



lilllllllllliiiiiiiii|NIIILi<miiiiiiiiiiiliiiii 


lliillllliillllilllillllllllllilillll 


J 


(3)  Letter  size  should  be  folded  thus: — 

(i)  (2) 


COMMERCIAL  CORRESPONDENCE 


323 


(4)  Envelopes  exactly  containing  the  paper  should  be 
used. 

(5)  Black  ink  and  black  or  indelible  typewriter  rib- 
bon are  preferable. 

(6)  Only  one  side  of  the  page  should  be  written  on. 

(7)  If  the  letter  covers  more  than  one  page,  the  ini- 
tials of  the  addressee  and  the  page  number  should 
be  placed  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  each 
page: 


F.J.B.— 2 


P.J.B.— 3 


(8)  When  circulars,  bills,  other  letters,  stamps,  etc., 
are  to  be  inclosed  in  the  letter,  it  is  usual  to  write 
the  abbreviation  "Inch"  in  the  lower  left-hand 
corner  of  the  page  in  order  to  remind  the  person 
sealing  the  envelope  that  the  letter  is  to  be 
accompanied  by  other  matter. 

9.  The  envelope  should  bear  the  full  name  and  address 
of  the  person  or  firm  to  whom  the  letter  is  to  be  sent.  In  the 
upper  left-hand  corner  should  be  placed  the  name  and 
address  of  the  sender,  in  order  to  facilitate  return  should 
the  addressee  not  to  be  found  or  the  address  be  incorrect  or 
insufficient.  Either  of  the  forms  given  on  page  324  is 
correct. 


324  CORRESPONDENCE 


Columbia  2SniVicr?itp 

in  tftc  Citp  of  JJtto  gorb 

SCHOOL    OF    JOURNALISM 

The   Outlook 

287  Fourth  Avenue 

New  York  City 

SUPERSCRIPTION   WITHOUT  PUNCTUATION 


J.  C.  Jones, 

576  East  73  Street, 

New  York  City. 


Mrs.  J.  C.  Jones, 

King  Edward  Hotel, 

Yonge  Street, 

Toronto, 

Ont. 


SUPERSCRIPTION   WITH   PUNCTUATION 

The  examples  of  commercial  correspondence  on  the  fol- 
lowing pages  illustrate  present  usage  with  regard  to  the 
general  arrangement,  introduction,  and  conclusion  of  busi- 
ness letters. 


COMMERCIAL  CORRESPONDENCE  325 


Omega  College, 

Brooklyn,  New  York, 

23  March,  1913. 

The  Continental  Bookstore, 
270  Fifth  Avenue, 
New  York  City. 
Gentlemen  :  — 

Please  send  me  by  mail  one  copy  of  Strindberg's 
"  Confessions  of  a  Fool,"  and  three  copies  of  Brere- 
ton's  "  Studies  in  Foreign  Education,"  and  charge 
these  volumes  to  my  account- 
Very  truly  yours, 

Frederick  J.  Brenner. 


The  Continental  Bookstore, 

270  Fifth  Avenue, 

New  York  City. 

24  March,  1913. 

Professor  Frederick  J.  Brenner, 
Omega  College, 

Brooklyn,  New  York. 
Dear  Sir:  — 

Referring  to  your  order  of  the  23d  inst.,  we 
regret  to  have  to  report  that,  so  far  as  we  can  learn, 
copies  of  Brereton's  "Studies  in  Foreign  Educa- 
tion" and  Strindberg's  "Confessions  of  a  Fool" 
are  not  to  be  had  on  the  American  market.  We 
have  ordered  from  London  and  expect  to  have 
the  volumes  within  three  weeks. 

Very  truly  yours, 
The  Continental  Bookstore. 

G.  R. 


326  CORRESPONDENCE 


The  Continental  Bookstore, 

270  Fifth  Avenue, 

New  York  City. 

17  April,  1913. 

Professor  Frederick  J.  Brenner, 
Omega  College, 

Brooklyn,  New  York 
Dear  Sir:  — 

We  are  in  receipt  of  your  favor  of  the  16th  inst. 
relating  to  our  charge  of  $2.40  for  a  copy  of  Strind- 
berg's  "Confessions  of  a  Fool."  On  London  books 
imported  there  is  a  U.  S.  Customs  duty  of  25%, 
and,  in  addition,  Customs  House  fees  and  other 
considerable  expenses  connected  with  the  import- 
ing. The  charge  made  by  American  importers  is  at 
the  rate  of  40^  to  the  shilling. 

There  is  no  duty  on  imported  books  printed 
wholly  in  any  language  other  than  English. 
Very  truly  yours, 

The  Continental  Bookstore. 

G.  R. 


REFERENCES 

Altmaier,  C  L.  Commercial  Correspondence  and  Postal  Information. 
Bates,  Arlo.   Talks  on  Writing  English,  vol.  ii,  pp.  228-36. 
Belding,  A.  G.   Commercial  Correspondence. 
Carnell,  J.  R.,  and  Hoit,  B.  S.   Modern  Letter-Writing. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.   Model  English  Prose,  pp.  6-10. 
Colson,  Elizabeth,  and  Chittenden,  A.  G.  Children's  Letters. 
Cody,  Sherwin.  Success  in  Letter-writing,  Business  and  Social. 
Crissey,  Forrest.  Handbook  of  Modem  Business  Correspondence. 
Davidson,  J.  W.   The  Correspondent. 
Dwyer,  I.  E.   The  Business  Letter. 
Dye,  Charity.  Letters  and  Letter-Writing. 
Fowler,  N.  C,  Jr.    The  Art  of  Letter-Writing. 
Fuess,  C  M.,  Editor.    Selected  English  Letters. 
Gardiner,  Kittredge,  and  Arnold.    Manual  of  Composition  and 
Rhetoric,  pp.  401-20.. 


COMMERCIAL  CORRESPONDENCE  327 

Gavtt,  H.  E.    The  Etiquette  of  Correspondence. 

Hammond,  H.  W.  Style-Book  of  Business  English. 

Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Composition,  pp.  64-86. 

Herrick  and  Damon.    New  Composition  and  Rhetoric  for  Schools, 

pp.  200-19. 
Hill,  A.  S.   Beginnings  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  pp.  35-43. 
Lockwood,  L.  E.,  and  Kelley,  A.  R.   Letters  that  Live. 
Lockwood,  S.  E.  H.  Lessons  in  English,  pp.  257-78. 
Roust  an,  M.  La  lettre  et  le  discours  (La  composition  francaise) . 
SoRelle,  R.  P.  Office  Training  for  Stenographers,  pp.  7-16;  31-40. 
Stebbins,  C.  M.  A  Progressive  Course  in  English,  pp.  377-82. 
Thomas  and  Howe.   Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  202-38. 
Woolley,  E.  C.   Handbook  of  Composition,  pp.  126-42. 


VII 

THE  USE  OF  BOOKS 

Any  student  who  has  to  write  should  learn  as  early  as 
possible  where  to  find  the  information  which  he  will  need  in 
his  work  and  how  to  use  to  the  utmost  the  resources  of  the 
library.  He  must  therefore  become  familiar  with  books  and 
their  use:  he  must  know  how  to  find  those  which  will  be  of 
assistance  to  him,  and  he  must  be  able  to  get  the  most  out 
of  them.  This  knowledge  involves  a  certain  degree  of  famil- 
iarity with  (1)  the  arrangement  of  a  library  and  its  system 
of  classification;  (2)  the  library  catalogue  and  the  data  on 
its  cards;  (3)  the  general  plan  or  make-up  of  a  book;  (4)  the 
most  important  elementary  reference  books.  In  the  sec- 
tions which  follow,  each  of  these  topics  will  be  briefly 
considered;  for  more  detailed  information  the  student  is 
referred  to  the  bibliography  at  the  end  of  this  section. 

I.  THE  LIBRARY  AND   ITS  ARRANGEMENT 
Books  in  a  library  are  usually  divided  into  two  large 
classes :  — 

1.  Reference  books,  which  are  not  intended  to  be  read 
throughout,  but  rather  to  be  consulted  for  specific  facts  or 
detailed,  exact  information.  Reference  books  include  such 
works  as  encyclopaedias,  dictionaries,  gazetteers  and  atlases, 
cyclopaedias  of  special  subjects,  yearbooks,  and  guides  to 
periodicals.  In  such  books  the  material  is  usually  arranged 
alphabetically  by  the  title  of  the  topic,  or  else  an  index  is 
provided  to  facilitate  reference  to  material  which  appears 
in  several  different  places.  Reference  books  are  generally 


THE   LIBRARY   AND   ITS   ARRANGEMENT     329 

placed  together  on  shelves  readily  accessible  to  the  reader 
and  are  not  allowed  to  be  taken  from  the  building. 

2.  Books  intended  for  reading  or  study,  of  which  every 
library  contains  a  large  number  in  addition  to  reference 
books.  These  books,  which  constitute  the  main  body  of  the 
library,  are  for  circulation  and  may  be  taken  out  for  a 
limited  time.  Sometimes  these  books  are  kept  on  shelves 
open  to  the  public;  sometimes  they  are  stored  in  special 
rooms  or  stacks  accessible  only  to  the  attendants.  Books 
on  such  subjects  as  History,  Economics,  and  Zoology  be- 
long to  this  group,  as  well  as  all  the  works  of  general  litera- 
ture.  (See  p.  331.) 

The  books  in  a  library  are  arranged  on  the  shelves  accord- 
ing to  some  definite  system  of  classification.  Books  dealing 
with  the  same  subject  are  grouped  together,  and  a  combina- 
tion of  numbers  and  letters  is  placed  on  the  back  of  the  book 
to  insure  its  return  to  its  proper  place  on  the  shelves.  This 
book  mark  or  call  number,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  consists 
of  two  parts:  first,  a  number  or  group  of  letters,  called  the 
class  mark,  which  stands  for  the  class  to  which  the  book 
belongs;  and  second,  the  author  number,  which  is  a  library 
device  to  abbreviate  the  author's  name,  and  which  is  neces- 
sary to  arrange  the  different  authors  alphabetically  in  any 
class.  Each  of  these  demands  a  brief  explanation. 
I.  Classification. 

In  a  library  classification  all  knowledge  is  divided  into  a 
system  of  related  subjects,  topics,  or  classes.  To  save  space 
in  reference  and  to  gain  simplicity,  these  classes  are  rep- 
resented by  a  permanent  set  of  arbitrary  letters  or  num- 
bers. There  are  two  chief  systems  of  classification  in  use :  — 

(a)  The  Dewey  Decimal,  which  uses  numbers  and  di- 
vides all  books  into  the  following  ten  classes,  which  may 
be  subdivided  according  to  the  more  elaborate  scheme  od 
page  331. 


330  THE  USE  OF  BOOKS 

0,  General  Works;  1,  Philosophy;  2,  Religion;  3,  Sociol- 
ogy; 4,  Philology;  5,  Natural  Science;  6,  Useful  Arts;  7, 
Fine  Arts;  8,  Literature;  9,  History. 

(6)  The  Cutter  Expansive,  which  uses  letters  for  the 
classes  with  additional  letters  for  the  sub-classes;  e.g.  :  — 

A,  General  works  of  reference  and  periodicals;  B,  Philos- 
ophy; E,  Biography;  F,  History;  G,  Geography;  H,  Social 
Sciences;  J,  Political  Science;  K,  Law;  L,  Natural  Sci- 
ence; LH,  Physics;  LO,  Chemistry;  M,  Natural  History; 
N,  Botany;  Q,  Medicine;  S,  Constructive  Arts;  T,  Manu- 
facturing; W,  Fine  Arts;  X,  Philology;  Y,  Literature; 
Z,  Book  Arts. 

This  classification  in  large  libraries  is  greatly  expanded: 
e.g.,  ZA,  Authorship;  ZB,  Rhetoric;  ZC,  Indexing;  ZD, 
Writing;  ZE,  Paleography;  ZH,  Printing;  ZK,  Binding; 
ZL,  Bookselling  and  Publishing;  etc. 

Note  :  In  some  classes  subdivision  by  localities  is  indicated 
by  the  addition  of  numbers  from  a  "Local  List"  used  to 
indicate  countries;  e.g.,  Y,  Literature;  Y35,  Italian  Litera- 
ture; Y36,  Latin  Literature;  Y39,  French  Literature,  etc. 

In  order  to  keep  the  "forms"  of  literature,  such  as 
poetry,  drama,  fiction,  together,  the  letter  P,  D,  or  F  is 
added  to  the  class  mark;  e.g.,  Y39p  means  French  Poetry; 
Y39d,  French  Drama;  Y39f,  French  Fiction. 

On  the  shelves  the  books  are  arranged  in  numerical  or 
alphabetic  sequence,  according  to  the  classification  used, 
beginning  at  the  left  end  of  the  topmost  shelf  of  the  first 
case,  and  are  read  along  the  shelf  as  a  line  in  a  newspaper, 
and  down  the  case  as  a  column  in  a  newspaper,  and  then 
from  the  top  shelf  of  the  next  case  to  the  right. 
2.  Author  Marks. 

In  addition  to  the  numbers  or  letter  indicating  its  classi- 
fication, a  book  bears  below  the  class  mark  an  author 
mark,  which  consists  of  the  initial  letter  and  a  number 


THE   LIBRARY  AND   ITS  ARRANGEMENT     331 


Dewey  Decimal  System  of  Classification 


ooo  General  Works 
010  Bibliography 
020  Library  Economy 
030  General  Cyclopedias 
040  General  Collections 
050  General  Periodicals 
060  General  Societies 
070  Newspapers 

080  Special  Libraries.  Polygraphy 
090  Book  Rarities 

ioo  Philosophy 

110  Metaphysics 

120  Special  Metaphysical  Topics 

130  Mind  and  Body 

140  Philosophical  Systems 

150  Mental  Faculties.   Psychology 

160  Logic 

170  Ethics 

180  Ancient  Philosophers 

190  Modern  Philosophers 

200  Religion 

210  Natural  Theology 

220  Bible 

230  Doctrinal  Theology.   Dogmatics 

240  Devotional  and  Practical 

250  Homiletic.   Pastoral.   Parochial 

260  Church.    Institutions.    Work 

270  Religious  History 

280  Christian  Churches  and  Sects 

290  Non-Christian  Religions 


500  Natural  Science 
510  Mathematics 
520  Astronomy 
530  Physics 
540  Chemistry 
550  Geology 
560  Paleontology 
570  Biology 
580  Botany 
590  Zoology 

600  Useful  Arts 

610  Medicine 

620  Engineering 

630  Agriculture 

640  Domestic  Economy 

650  Communication  and  Commerce 

660  Chemical  Technology 

670  Manufactures 

680  Mechanic  Trades 

690  Building 

700  Fine  Arts 

710  Landscape  Gardening 

720  Architecture 

730  Sculpture 

740  Drawing,  Design,  Decoration 

750  Painting 

760  Engraving 

770  Photography 

780  Music 

790  Amusements 


300  Sociology 

800  Literature 

310  Statistics 

810  American 

320  Political  Science 

820  English 

330  Political  Economy 

830  German 

340  Law 

840  French 

350  Administration 

850  Italian 

360  Associations  and  Institutions 

860  Spanish 

370  Education 

870  Latin 

380  Commerce  and  Communication 

880  Greek 

390  Customs.   Costumes. 

Folk-Lore 

890  Minor  Languages 

400  Philology 

900  History 

410  Comparative 

910  Geography  and  Description 

•  420  English 

920  Biography 

430  German 

930  Ancient  History 

440  French 

940  Modern  Europe 

450  Italian 

950         "         Asia 

460  Spanish 

960        "         Africa 

470  Latin 

970         "         North  America 

480  Greek 

980                    South  America 

490  Minor  Languages 

990        "         Oceanica     and     Polar 
Regions. 

332 


THE   USE   OF   BOOKS 


standing  for  the  rest  of  the  writer's  name.  This  number  is 
obtained  from  a  table  of  which  the  following  are  extracts: — 


Brie  761 

Brick  762 

Brid  763 

Bridge  764 

Brie  765 

Briem  766 

Briet  767 

Brig  768 

Brign  769 


Louisa  93 

Louisy  931 

Loum  932 

Loupo  933 

Lourdo  934 

Lous  935 

Lout  936 

Louve  937 

Louvi  938 


In  each  case  the  number  assigned  includes  the  initial  of 
the  writer's  name  and  added  figures  which  indicate  numeri- 
cally the  exact  alphabetic  order;  e.g. :  — 


B912  Burgess 

B915  Burgoyne 

B919  Burke 

B928  Burmeister 


H348   Hearn 
H352   Hearnshaw 
H354   Hebert 
H358   Hedges 


3.  Book  mark  or  call  number. 

This  is  a  combination  of  the  class  mark  and  the  author 
mark.  It  is  stamped  or  pasted  on  the  back  of  the  book  and 
indicates  the  relative  location  of  the  book  on  the  shelves; 
e.g.:  — 


Emerson 


Works 


810 
E35 


Lowell 


Complete 
Prose 
Works 


810 
L36 


Milton's 

Poetical 

Works 


823 

M64 


Shakespeare 


Works 


823 

S34 


Note:  In  the  case  of  biography,  the  class  mark  consists  of 
the  number  920  or  the  class  letter  E  plus  the  initial  of  the 


THE   LIBRARY   CATALOGUE  333 

biographee's  name  and  the  proper  number  to  represent  the 
rest  of  the  name,  as  in  the  case  of  the  author;  e.g.,  Eb919, 
Morley's  Burke. 

Special  arrangements  are  made  for  fiction  in  libraries 
having  a  large  number  of  novels.  Sometimes  the  author 
mark  alone  is  used. 

2.  THE  LIBRARY  CATALOGUE 

The  library  catalogue  is  made  to  facilitate  the  finding  of 
material  on  the  shelves  of  the  library.  It  is  to  the  shelves 
what  the  index  of  a  book  is  to  the  pages.  Experience  has 
proved  that  cards  3X5  inches  arranged  in  drawers  make 
the  most  convenient  catalogue.  The  cards  are  planned 
to  answer  these  three  questions :  — 

1.  Has  the  library  any  books  by  a  given  author?  The 
cards  which  answer  this  question  are  called  author 
cards.    (See  page  335.) 

2.  Has  the  library  any  books  on  a  given  subject?  The 
cards  which  answer  this  question  are  called  subject 
cards.   (See  page  336.) 

3.  Has  the  library  a  copy  of  a  book  with  a  given  title? 
The  cards  which  answer  this  question  are  called  title 
cards.    (See  page  337.) 

Note:  At  least  one  card  is  made  for  every  book  in  the 
library,  and  sometimes  several  cards  are  made  for  a  single 
volume;  e.g.,  an  author  card,  a  subject  card,  a  title  card,  or 
some  of  the  special  cards  to  be  explained  later.  (See  page 
339.) 

As  the  same  call  number  appears  on  all  the  different 
cards  for  the  same  book,  the  location  of  the  volume  can  be 
found  from  any  of  its  cards. 

The  cards  are  arranged  in  the  catalogue  drawers  in 
two  ways:  (1)  Some  libraries  prefer  to  file  the  author 
and  title  cards  together,  alphabetically  in  one  index,  and 


334  THE  USE   OF  BOOKS 

the  subject  cards  alphabetically  in  another.  (2)  The 
majority  of  libraries  prefer  to  file  all  cards  together  in 
one  alphabetical  index,  in  exactly  the  way  in  which  words 
are  arranged  in  the  dictionary  or  topics  in  a  cyclopaedia. 
Libraries  vary  in  practice  with  regard  to  the  details 
which  they  give  on  cards,  but  generally  most  information 
will  be  found  on  the  author  or  main  card.  If  the  reader 
desires  very  full  bibliographical  data  regarding  an  Ameri- 
can book,  he  will  do  well  to  consult  the  Library  of  Congress 
cards  which  are  kept  in  most  large  libraries. 


Bryce,  James,  1838- 

The  hindrances  to  good  citizenship,  by  James 
Bryce.  New  Haven,  Yale  university  press;  [etc., 
etc.]   1909. 

3  p.  1.,  3-138  p.  20°n>.  (Half  title :  Yale  lectures  on  the  responsi- 
bilities of  citizenship.)    $1.15 

1.  Citizenship 

9-30390 

Library  of  Congress  JC329.B8 


Copy  2. 


Copyright    A  251930 


SAMPLE    OF    LIBRARY    OF    CONGRESS    CARD 

Note  :  These  cards  give  such  bibliographical  details  as  the 
following:  author's  name  and  dates,  title,  place  of  publica- 
tion, publisher,  date  of  publication,  paging,  size,  series,  price, 
subject  heading  to  be  used,  classification,  author  number, 
and  library  catalogue  order-number. 

In  the  sample  cards  which  follow,  a  standard  form  is 
given  as  an  illustration.  The  examples  are  meant  to  be  sug- 
gestive, and  the  student  can  adapt  the  forms  to  suit  his 
needs.  Uniformity  and  completeness  of  entry  are  the  two 
points  upon  which  he  must  use  his  own  judgment.    He 


THE   LIBRARY   CATALOGUE 


335 


should  remember  that  often  several  cards  may  be  made 
for  the  same  book,  especially  if  more  than  one  subject  is 
treated.  Full  cataloguing  rules  will  be  found  in  the  books 
listed  on  page  347 


The  Author  Card 

In  the  catalogue  all  authors  are  arranged  alphabetically 
as  the  names  are  in  a  directory  or  the  words  in  the  diction- 
ary. All  works  by  an  author  are  arranged  alphabetically  by 
title  under  his  name.  In  most  libraries  the  author  entry 
is  fuller  in  bibliographical  detail  than  the  subject  entry. 
Books  about  an  author  are  found  in  the  same  part  of  the 
catalogue  as  books  by  him,  so  that  the  cards  for  bibliog- 
raphies, biographies,  and  critical  works  come  either  imme- 
diately before  or  after  the  works  by  him.  The  student  will 
find  it  a  useful  habit  to  keep  for  future  reference  a  record 
of  books  which  deal  with  subjects  which  he  is  studying  or 
in  which  he  is  interested.  These  cards  may  be  kept  filed 
behind  alphabetical  guides  in  the  drawer  of  his  desk  or  in  a 
cardboard  box. 


820.9 
Si5 


Call 
number 


Simoncls,  William  Edward 


A  Student's  History  of  English  Litera- 
ture. 

Boston,  1902.     483  p.     ill.    map,  0. 


Author's  name —  Title — Place  of  publication, 
{copyright)  date,  paging,  illus.,  size 


SAMPLE    AUTHOR    CARD 


336 


THE   USE   OF  BOOKS 


The  Subject  Card 

When  the  reader  is  looking  for  information  or  for  refer- 
ences on  a  subject,  he  will  find  it  the  best  plan  to  consult 
the  library  catalogue  before  any  of  the  other  bibliographical 
aids.   Subject  cards  are  arranged  in  two  ways:  — 

(1)  Under  specific,  definite,  restricted  headings  repre- 
senting a  small  part  of  a  large  subject;  e.g.,  Eclipses, 
Capital,  Differential  equations. 

(2)  In  the  case  of  countries,  alphabetically  as  a  sub- 
heading under  the  name  of  the  country;  e.g.:  — 

Great  Britain.         Antiquities. 
Army. 
Colonies. 
Commerce. 

Note  1 :  In  the  case  of  Language  and  Literature  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  use  the  adjectival  form  of  the  name  of  the  coun- 
try. Look,  therefore,  under  English  Language  rather  than 
England.  Language,  and  under  French  Literature  rather  than 
France.  Literature. 

Note  2:  In  order  to  distinguish  them  from  the  other  kinds 
of  cards,  subject  cards  have  their  headings  generally  printed 
or  written  in  red.  Some  libraries  use  blue  cards  for  bibliog- 
raphy, green  for  biography,  and  yellow  for  criticism. 


Great  Britain. 
Great  Britain. 
Great  Britain. 


820.9 
Si5 


Call 
number 


English  literature 


Simonds,  W.  E. 

A  Student's  History  of  English  Litera- 
ture. 

Boston,  1902.    483  p.    ill.    map,  0. 


Subject-heading  in  red  ink —  Author's  name- 
Title  —  Place,  date,  paging,  illus. ,  size 


SAMPLE    SUBJECT    CARD 


THE   LIBRARY   CATALOGUE 


337 


The  Title  Card 

A  title  card  is  useful  when  the  reader  has  forgotten  the 
author's  name.  It  is  usually  made  for  works  of  fiction  and 
for  all  other  books  with  striking  or  distinctive  titles  which 
would  be  likely  to  be  remembered  by  a  reader.  The  title 
card  is  usually  simple,  since  detailed  information  is  given 
on  the  author  card  for  the  same  book.  Title  cards  are  not 
made  for  books  having  a  general  title,  as  "English  Litera- 
ture." 


825 
B433 


Call 
number 


Mental  Efficiency 


Bennett,  Arnold 


Title  and  author 


SAMPLE    TITLE    CARD 


Cross-References 

There  are  two  kinds  of  helpful  cards  frequently  found  in 
the  catalogue  which  do  not  themselves  give  information 
about  books,  but  rather  point  the  way  to  it.  The  student 
should  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  their  significance, 
since  attention  to  them  saves  much  time  and  is  essential 
if  the  reader  would  use  the  full  resources  of  the  library. 

i.  "See"  Reference. 

If,  when  you  look  up  a  card  with  the  desired  subject 
given  on  the  first  line,  you  find  the  direction  to  "see" 


338 


THE   USE   OF  BOOKS 


another  subject,  you  will  understand  that  no  entries  are 
made  under  the  first  heading,  but  that  all  books  on  the 
subject  are  classified  and  catalogued  under  the  heading 
following  the  word  "see." 


No  call 
number 


Animals  —  Psychology 


see 
Animal  intelligence 


SAMPLE  "  SEE  "   REFERENCE  CARD 


This  means  that  no  books  will  be  found  catalogued  under 
the  heading  "Animals  —  Psychology,"  but  that  they  will 
be  found  by  turning  to  the  cards  marked  "Animal  intelli- 
gence." 
2.  "See  also"  Reference. 

Frequently  at  the  end  of  the  catalogue  cards  on  a  given 
subject,  the  reader  will  find  a  card  with  the  same  heading 
followed  by  the  words  "See  also"  introducing  a  number  of 
other  headings.  This  means  that,  in  addition  to  the  books 
on  the  subject  the  cards  for  which  have  already  been  ex- 
amined, the  library  has  related  material  catalogued  under 
the  headings  following  the  words  "See  also."  In  exhaustive 
work  or  in  original  investigation  the  student  should  always 
follow  up  these  trails,  because  they  often  lead  to  valuable 
or  unexpected  material. 


THE   LIBRARY   CATALOGUE 


339 


No  call 
number 


Mushrooms 


see  also 


Fungi 


SAMPLE    " SEE    ALSO  "    REFERENCE    CARD 

This  means  that,  in  addition  to  the  works  catalogued 
under  the  heading  "Mushrooms/'  the  reader  will  find  re- 
lated material  under  the  heading  "Fungi." 

A  "See  also"  reference  is  never  made  unless  the  library- 
has  material  under  the  second  heading.  Other  related 
headings  may  be  placed  on  the  same  card. 


Analytics 

A  very  useful  variation  of  the  author,  subject,  and  title 
cards  is  called  the  Analytic.  It  is  used  to  refer  the  reader  to 
a  portion  of  a  book  (1)  written  by  one  of  several  collabo- 
rators; or  (2)  dealing  with  a  specific  subject,  other  than 
the  subject  of  the  book,  when  that  topic  is  not  definitely 
indicated  in  the  title  of  a  book  which  deals  with  several 
subjects;  or  (3)  when  that  portion  has  a  title  of  its  own 
different  from  and  independent  of  the  title  of  the  volume. 

Analytic  cards  perform  for  the  library  a  service  similar 
to  that  of  a  good  detailed  index  in  calling  attention  to  the 
contents  of  a  book.  They  enable  the  student  to  find  with 
ease  much  material  that  would  otherwise  escape  his  notice. 


340 


THE   USE   OF   BOOKS 


Call 
number 


Shaw,  George  Bernard 


Candida.    (In  his  Plays,  pleasant  and  un- 
pleasant.    1904.     Vol.  2.  p.  205-283.) 


SAMPLE    AUTHOR    ANALYTIC 


Call 
number 


Blake,  William 


Brooke,  S.  A. 

William  Blake.    (In  Brooke,  S.  A.    Stud- 
ies in  poetry.     1907.     p.  1-54.) 


Call 
number 


SAMPLE     SUBJECT    ANALYTIC 


Candida 


Shaw,  G.  B. 

(In  his  Plays,  pleasant  and  unpleasant. 
1904.     Vol.  2.  p.  205-283.) 


SAMPLE    TITLE    ANALYTIC 


THE   LIBRARY  CATALOGUE  341 

Use  of  the  Card  Index  and  File 

There  are  three  ways  in  which  the  student  will  find 
a  knowledge  of  card  indexing  and  of  filing  valuable  to 
him:  — 

1.  In  keeping  a  record  of  references  to  books  and  maga- 
zine articles  which  are  likely  to  be  of  interest  or  use  to 
him  in  the  future,  but  which  will  be  forgotten  or  lost 
unless  preserved  in  some  systematic  and  permanent 
manner. 

2.  In  recording  and  arranging  references  to  be  used  in 
the  preparation  of  an  essay,  report,  or  thesis,  or  in 
filing  a  selected  list  of  such  references  for  a  bibliog- 
raphy. 

3.  In  taking  or  preserving  notes  of  readings  and  lec- 
tures, or  in  filing  manuscript  or  printed  articles.  (See 
pp.  208-214.    On  taking  notes.) 

The  student  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  directions 
which  follow  are  intended  to  be  suggestive  rather  than 
obligatory,  and  that  he  should  always  adapt  them  to  his 
personal  convenience  after  careful  consideration  of  the 
future  use  and  the  possible  growth  of  his  system  of 
filing. 

1.  Be  accurate  in  details.  A  mistake  in  a  page,  a  vol- 
ume number,  or  a  date  may  render  a  reference  inac- 
cessible and  useless.  Be  particularly  careful  to  copy 
proper  names  and  titles  exactly. 

2.  Have  your  records  neat,  uniform,  and  legible. 

3.  Arrange  your  card  index  or  your  file  of  notes  or  clip- 
pings with  a  view  to  its  most  convenient  use.  The 
system  which  you  use  should  enable  you  (a)  to  find 
a  reference  or  a  note  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  (b)  to 
find  all  the  material  that  you  have  on  a  certain  sub- 
ject. Use  guide-cards  to  facilitate  reference:  alpha- 
betic for  authors,  and  cut  i,  i,  £  for  subjects. 


342  THE   USE   OF  BOOKS 

4.  Keep  a  record  of  headings  used  and  of  cross-refer- 
ences made.  Don't  use  two  different  headings  for  the 
same  subject. 

5.  Don't  become  a  slave  to  a  system.  Remember  that 
your  file  is  not  an  end  in  itself,  but  only  a  means  to 
the  economy  of  future  time.  It  is  a  mistake  to  play 
solitaire  with  catalogue  cards. 

3.  THE  MAKE-UP  OF  A  BOOK 

The  student  should  have  an  intelligent,  even  if  elemen- 
tary, conception  of  the  tools  of  his  trade.  A  small  amount  of 
knowledge  of  the  details  of  the  make-up  of  a  book  will  help 
him  to  use  books  more  effectively. 

To-day  only  very  large  or  expensive  books  are  really 
bound  in  the  sense  of  being  sewn  to  the  covers.  Most 
books  (such  as  this,  for  instance)  are  pasted  securely  to 
what  is  known  as  a     case  binding." 

A  book  is  printed  in  sections,  which  consist  of  large 
sheets  of  paper  on  which  a  number  of  pages  are  so  printed 
at  one  impression  and  then  so  folded  as  to  bring  the  single 
pages  ultimately  in  their  proper  order.  A  sheet  that  is 
folded  once  makes  a  large-sized  page,  is  called  folio  size,  and 
contains  two  leaves  and  four  pages  (30-35cm) ;  a  quarto  is  so 
folded  as  to  make  four  leaves  and  eight  pages  (25-30cm). 

Other  folds  give  the  octavo  with  sixteen  pages  (20- 
25cm),  the  duodecimo  or  12mo  with  twenty-four  pages 
(17.5-20cm),  the  16mo  with  thirty-two  pages  (15- 
17.5cm),  and  so  on.  The  original  sheet  of  paper  varies 
in  quality  and  size.  On  this  account  the  size  marks  of 
books  are  sometimes  prefixed  by  trade  adjectives  such  as 
Demy,  Royal,  or  Imperial. 

The  type  in  books  varies  according  to  the  purpose  and 
size  of  the  book.  The  following  table  gives  the  chief  sizes 
of  type  in  general  use:  — 


THE    MAKE-UP   OF   A   BOOK 


343 


Specimen  of  Type 


The  Study  and  Pr 

The  Study  and  Practic 

The  Study  and  Practice  of  W 
The  Study  and  Practice  of  Writing 
The  Study  and  Practice  of  Writing  E 
The  Study  and  Practice  of  Writing  Englis 
The  Study  and  Practice  of  Writing  English.  . 

The  Study  and  Practice  of  Writing-  English 

The  Study  and  Practice  of  Writing  English 

The  Study  and  Practice  of  Writing  English 

The  Study  and  Practice  of  Writing  English  


Old  names 

Point* 

2  line  Small 
Pica 

22 

Great  Primer 

18 

English 

14 

Pica 

12 

Small  Pica 

Long  Primer 

Bourgeois 

Brevier 

Minion 

Nonpareil 

Pearl 

11 
10 
9 
8 
7 
6 
5 

Note  1 .  The  old  names  of  type  bodies  have  been  replaced  by 
a  standard  numerical  system  in  which  996  points  are  equal  to 
35cm.  or  1  point  to  .0138  inch.  The  body  of  this  book  is  set  in 
10  point  and  the  notes,  such  as  this  one,  in  8  point. 

Note  2.  Advertisements,  title-pages,  tabular  matter,  and  ex- 
pensive books  are  usually  set  by  hand.  The  linotype  and  the 
monotype  are  machines  which  are  in  general  use  for  rapid  com- 
position on  a  large  scale.  A  visit  to  a  newspaper  or  printing 
office  will  give  the  student  a  much  clearer  idea  of  the  process  of 
printing  than  he  can  get  from  reading  about  it. 

In  addition  to  covers,  end  papers,  and  fly-leaves,  a  book 
consists  of  the  following  parts :  — 

1.  The  Title-Page,  which  may  give  us  most  or  all  of  the 
following  facts:  title,  author  (with  degrees,  titles,  or 
other  works),  series  or  edition,  place  of  publication, 
publisher,  date.  If  no  date  is  given  on  the  title-page, 
look  on  the  back  of  the  leaf  for  the  copyright  date,  or 
at  the  end  of  the  preface.  The  date  of  the  original 
copyright  is  often  more  significant  than  that  of  new 
editions  (revised  or  enlarged  reprintings)  or  of  new 
impressions  (reprinting  from  the  same  plates).  The 
student  should  note  whether  the  place  of  publication 


344  THE   USE   OF  BOOKS 

(England  or  United  States)  or  the  date  (old  or  re- 
cent) will  affect  the  information  he  desires. 

2.  The  Preface,  which  frequently  defines  the  author's 
point  of  view,  give  suggestions  for  the  use  of  the 
book,  or  indicates  the  limitation  of  the  subject  or  the 
omission  of  topics. 

3.  The  Table  of  Contents,  which  may  consist  merely  of 
an  orderly  arrangement  of  the  chapter  headings  with 
reference  to  pages,  or  of  a  careful  analysis  of  the  con- 
tents logically  arranged.  In  either  case  the  reader  will 
get  from  the  table  of  contents  an  idea  of  the  topics 
treated  and  of  their  relationship. 

4.  List  of  Illustrations,  which  is  especially  useful  in  the 
case  of  technical  and  art  books. 

5.  The  Text  or  body  of  the  book,  which  is  divided  into 
chapters,  with  running  headings  at  the  top  of  the  pages, 
and  frequently  with  paragraph  or  marginal  headings 
in  different  type  to  indicate  the  subject  of  sections  or 
paragraphs.  Reference  numbers  (*,  2)  or  signs  (*  f) 
in  the  text  refer  to  footnotes  or  to  appendixes. 

6.  The  Appendix,  when  included  in  a  book,  contains  ex- 
tended illustrative  matter  which  would  have  inter- 
rupted the  text  if  it  had  been  included  in  the  body  of 
the  book. 

7.  The  Index  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  all  the  topics, 
persons,  or  places  mentioned  in  the  book,  with  refer- 
ences to  the  page  on  which  they  may  be  found.  In 
using  an  index,  the  student  should  read  any  explana- 
tory note  prefixed  to  it.  In  some  books  the  most  im- 
portant index  reference  is  printed  in  heavy  face  type. 

Note  :  The  student  should  be  given  practice  in  the  quick 
and  correct  use  of  such  indexes  as  that  to  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  various  concordances,  books  of  quotations,  and 
gazetteers. 


THE   MAKE-UP   OF  A   BOOK  345 

Elementary  Reference  Books 

The  student  should  not  be  left  to  a  haphazard  acquaint- 
ance with  books  of  reference,  but  should,  early  in  his 
course,  be  given  a  systematic  introduction  to  them  and  fre- 
quent practice  in  their  rapid  and  effective  use.  The  fol- 
lowing list  is  the  briefest  possible  introduction  to  a  vast 
subject.  For  further  information  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Alice  Bertha  Kroeger's  Guide  to  the  Study  and  Use  of  Ref- 
erence Books,  third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged  by  Isadore 
G.  Mudge,  1917. 

1.  Encyclopaedias. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (11th  ed.);  New  International; 
Nelson's  Loose-Leaf;  La  Grande  Encyclopedie  (suppl.); 
Meyer's  Konversations-lexikon  (suppl.). 

2.  Dictionaries. 

Murray's  New  English  Dictionary  on  Historical  Princi- 
ples (Oxford  Dictionary);  Webster's  New  International; 
The  Century;  The  Standard  (Funk  and  Wagnalls);  Skeats's 
Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language. 

3.  Guides  to  Books  and  Readings. 

The  Warner  Library  (Student's  Course,  1917);  A.  L.  A. 
Index  to  General  Literature;  A.  L.  A.  Catalogue  and  Sup- 
plement; Sonnenschein's  Best  Books;  W.  F.  Gray's  Books 
that  Count;  Baker's  Guide  to  the  Best  Fiction;  Dictionary 
Catalogue  of  Everyman's  Library. 

4.  Indexes  to  Periodical  Literature. 

Poole's  Index;  Reader's  Guide;  individual  annual  indexes 
to  magazines  (e.g.,  Educational  Review,  Forum). 

5.  Biography. 

Stephen's  Dictionary  of  National  Biography;  Appleton's 
National  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Biography;  Lamb's 
Biographical  Dictionary  of  the  United  States;  Nouveau 
Larousse;  Allgemeine  Deutsche  Biographie;  Century  Dic- 
tionary of  Names;  the  various  encyclopaedias;  Who's  Who? 
Who's  Who  in  America?  Qui  etes-vous?   Wer  ist's? 

6.  Quotations. 

S.  A.  Allibone's  Poetical  Quotations  from  Chaucer  to  Ten- 
nyson, and  Prose  Quotations  from  Socrates  to  Macaulay ; 


346  THE   USE   OF  BOOKS 

J.  Bartlett's  Familiar  Quotations;  W.  G.  Benham's  Book  of 
Quotations;  P.  H.  Dalbiac's  Dictionary  of  Quotations;  J.  K. 
Hoyt's  Cyclopaedia  of  Practical  Quotations;  H.  Swan's 
Dictionary  of  Contemporary  Quotations;  Treffry's  Stokes' 
Encyclopaedia  of  Familiar  Quotations;  W.  S.  Walsh's  Inter- 
national Encyclopaedia  of  Prose  and  Poetical  Quotations. 
7.  Trade  Bibliography. 

United  States  Catalogue  of  Books  in  print  (continued 
annually);  Reference  Catalogue  of  Current  Literature; 
Publisher's  Trade  List  Annual;  English  Catalogue  of  Books. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  What  information  do  you  get  from  a  title-page?  Why  is  it 
important? 

2.  What  kinds  of  catalogue  cards  are  there?  What  information 
does  each  give?  What  is  the  difference  between  a  "see"  and  a 
"see  also"  reference? 

3.  Make  a  set  of  catalogue  cards  for  half  a  dozen  books  in  the 
library.    Compare  your  cards  with  those  in  the  catalogue. 

4.  What  books  would  you  use  to  find  references  on  the  invention 
of  printing?  Manuscripts?  Proof-reader's  marks?  Bookbind- 
ing? Caxton? 

5.  Make  a  list  of  twenty  magazine  articles  on  Woodrow  Wilson 
published  during  the  last  year. 

6.  Find  good  illustrations  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  gas  engines, 
aeroplanes,  Gothic  architecture,  submarines,  sewage  systems, 
turbines. 

7.  Make  a  list  of  recent  books  on  a  subject  now  of  public  interest. 

8.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  linotype  and  a  monotype 
machine? 

9.  How  is  a  newspaper  printed? 

10.  What  is  the  meaning  of:  bucentaur;  Kilkenny  cats;  pedarian; 
foliations;  composing  stick;  tumbling  barrel? 

11.  What  are  the  two  chief  systems  of  subject  classification?  How 
do  they  differ?  What  is  the  class  mark  which  your  library  uses 
for  Literary  Criticism?  Zoology?  Cooking?  Philosophy?  Dic- 
tionaries? 

12.  Has  your  library  a  copy  of  David  Copperfield  ?  Any  books  by 
Woodrow  Wilson?  The  Oxford  Book  of  Verse  ?  A  book  on 
gardening? 

13.  Who  wrote  Pride  and  Prejudice  ?  Find  an  illustrated  edition  of 
Pilgrim's  Progress;  an  edition  of  Shakespeare  published  in  Eng- 
land; a  translation  of  Dante's  Divine  Comedy. 


THE   MAKE-UP   OF  A  BOOK  347 

14.  Has  your  library  a  biography  of  John  Ruskin?  A  critical  inter- 
pretation of  Robert  Browning?    A  bibliography  of  Tennyson? 

15.  What  is  an  "analytic"  catalogue  card?    Make  analytics  for  a 
volume  of  critical  essays,  such  as  P.  E.  More's  Shelburne  Essays. 

REFERENCES 

American  Library  Association.     Catalogue,  1904,  with  supplement 

1904-1911,  and  continuation. 
American  Library  Association.  List  of  Subject  Headings.   1911.   3  ed. 
American  Library  Association  and   (British)   Library  Association. 

Catalogue  Rules.   Author  and  title  entries.   Boston,  1908. 
Bishop,  W.  W.    Practical  Manual  of  Modern  Library  Cataloguing. 

Baltimore,  1914. 
Cutter,  C.  A.   Expansive  Classification.   Boston,  1891-93. 
Cutter,  C.  A.  Rules  for  a  Dictionary  Catalogue,  ed.  4.  Washington, 

1904. 
Cutter,  C.  A.,  and  Sanborn,  K.  E.   Alfabetic  order  table.   Boston, 

1902. 
Davenport,  Ctril.     The  Book;  Its  History  and  Development.   New 

York,  1907. 
Dewey,    Melvil.      Decimal   Classification  and  Relative  Index  for 

Libraries,  Clippings,  Notes,  etc.  ed.  7.  Lake  Placid  Club,  New  York, 

1911. 
Fat,  L.  E.,  and  Eaton,  A.  T.    Instruction  in  the  Use  of  Books  and 

Libraries.   Boston,  1915. 
Hitchcock,   F.   H.,   ed.     The   Building  of  a  Book.     New   York, 

1906. 
Richardson,  L.  C.    Classification,  Theoretical  and  Practical.     New 

York,  1912. 
Ward,  G.  O.  The  Practical  Use  of  Books  and  Libraries.  Boston,  1917. 


APPENDIX  I 

MISCELLANEOUS    FAULTY  SENTENCES  FOR 
CORRECTION 

1.  Neither  of  the  sisters  were  very  much  displeased. 

2.  The  rapidity  of  Lord  Roberts'  movements  are  deserving  of 
the  highest  praise. 

3.  The  habit  of  noticing  the  smallest  objects  teach  a  man  to  note 
and  carry  in  his  mind  those  little  marks  by  which  he  can 
often  obtain  important  information. 

4.  I  sent  her  a  letter  asking  who  he  was  with  and  what  he  was 
doing. 

5.  Perhaps  every  one  present  except  he  guessed  what  the  diffi- 
culty was. 

6.  The  presence  of  numerous  small  French  posts  on  Egyptian 
territory  raise  questions  of  the  gravest  political  importance. 

7.  An  extremely  clever  person,  his  accomplishments  were 
numerous. 

8.  Feeling  thus,  it  was  strange  that  he  should  go  on  with  the 
work. 

9.  Who  should  I  meet  at  the  door  but  he? 

10.  In  the  same  number  is  an  important  plea  for  the  emancipa- 
tion of  woman  from  the  pen  of  Adolphus  Brown. 

11.  Speaking  as  a  colonist,  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  the  experi- 
ment in  the  colonies  has  been  successful. 

12.  I  was  less  able  to  praise  the  sort  of  fiction  we  Americans 
imagine  ourselves  to  have  surpassed  the  English  in. 

13.  It  has  too  often  been  our  habit  in  dealing  with  these  people 
to  forget  the  crime  committed  by  them  on  the  first  appear- 
ance of  repentance. 

14.  Bruges  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  cities  which  is  to  be 
found  in  Europe. 

15.  Neither  of  these  show  any  signs  of  care. 

16.  I  always  take  pleasure  in  overthrowing  those  kind  of 
schemes. 

17.  I  am  one  of  those  who  cannot  describe  what  I  do  not  see. 

18.  What  they  are,  or  why  they  are  what  they  are  seem  likely  to 
remain  mysteries. 

19.  The  form  of  Richardson's  future  masterpieces  were  deter- 
mined by  his  bent  toward  letter-writing. 

20.  The  writer  contemplates  the  possibility  of  the  conversion  of 


EXERCISES  349 

the  four  hundred  millions  of  China  into  a  military  people 
with  dread. 

21.  She  was  the  most  beautiful  of  her  sisters. 

22.  No  one  can  have  lost  their  reputation  through  this  mistake. 

23.  Weighing  the  grounds  of  argument,  was  a  viler  treason  ever 
perpetrated? 

24.  The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company  has  inaugurated 
a  scheme  for  pensioning  its  old  servants  of  a  unique  char- 
acter. 

25.  One  species  of  bread  of  coarse  quality  was  only  allowed  to  be 
baked. 

26.  We  hear  this  argument  used  every  day  to  throw  doubt  on  the 
latest  marvels  of  science  by  the  unscientific. 

27.  It  is  like  the  story  of  the  hunter  who  shot  an  eagle  at  a  very 
great  altitude,  with  an  Irish  farmer  watching  the  operation. 

28.  Everybody  is  to  judge  for  themselves. 

29.  He  was  not  in  a  position  to  state  the  speed  the  ship  trav- 
eled. 

30.  Being  the  only  one  in  existence,  men  have  traveled  some  ten 
thousand  miles  merely  to  gaze  upon  the  figure  of  this  mon- 
ster creature. 

31.  I  should  like  for  you  to  come  at  once. 

32.  A  madman  fired  at  the  President  —  at  least  he  attempted  to. 

33.  He  would  not  have  dared  to  have  assumed  such  responsi- 
bility. 

34.  People  lived  longer  then  than  they  can  hope  to  now. 

35.  He  might  have  been  able  to  have  made  peace  with  the 
enemy. 

36.  The  gospels  are  as  old  or  even  older  than  tradition. 

37.  This  is  a  type  of  woman  there  are  excellent  reasons  for  an- 
ticipating will  become  more  frequent. 

38.  Persia  filled  a  great  place  in  the  world.  Jewish  and  Christian 
progress  owe  it  immense  gratitude. 

39.  That  the  poor  is  always  with  us  is  shown  by  the  accounts  of 
the  charitable  works  that  fill  the  papers. 

40.  Being  an  out-door  game,  I  think  golf  is  beneficial  in  mostly 
every  way. 

41.  Paradise  Lost  is  the  name  of  a  great  poem  on  the  loss  of 
Paradise  divided  into  twelve  parts. 

42.  He  spoke  of  the  sale  of  Ford's  Theater  where  Mr.  Lincoln 
was  assassinated  for  religious  purposes. 


350  EXERCISES 

43.  I  don't  know  as  I  am  any  worse  than  any  one  else. 

44.  She  watches  it  like  a  cat  watches  a  mouse. 

45.  Articles  appear  in  the  magazine  on  the  page  for  women  deal- 
ing with  early  fall  fashions. 

46.  At  twelve  years  old  his  mother  sent  him  to  live  with  his 
uncle. 

47.  He  was  violently  opposed  to  the  administration's  policy. 

48.  Many  were  the  mischievous  tricks  we  played  and  were  not 
caught. 

49.  The  problem  is  one  which  no  research  has  hitherto  solved, 
and  probably  never  will. 

50.  He  was  shot  by  a  secretary  under  notice  to  quit  with  whom 
he  was  finding  fault,  fortunately  without  effect. 

51.  Did  he  tell  anything  of  the  matter?  Not  as  I  know  of. 

52.  He  repeated  the  lines  after  he  had  read  them  only  once  with 
perfect  accuracy. 

53.  No  people  ever  was  more  rudely  assailed  by  the  sword  of 
conquest  than  those  of  this  country;  none  had  its  chains,  to 
all  appearance,  more  firmly  riveted  around  their  necks. 

54.  His  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  language,  customs,  and  char- 
acter have  given  him  an  immense  influence  over  the  people 
of  China. 

55.  Do  you  think  it  was  her  who  came? 

56.  How  long  have  you  been  waiting  on  me? 

57.  Hoping  to  receive  your  order,  prompt  delivery  is  guaranteed. 

58.  I  could  not  send  a  message,  so  I  was  obliged  to  appear  rude. 

59.  He  is  not  as  well  as  he  was. 

60.  In  the  ordinary  state  university  the  student  gets  a  purely 
utilitarian  training,  but  the  classics  may  receive  a  share  of 
his  attention  in  this  institution. 

61.  The  next  room  is  smaller,  and  it  is  called  the  office. 

62.  Why  did  you  leave  it  stand  on  the  table? 

63.  He  has  already  and  will  in  the  future  study  French. 

64.  My  brother,  whom  I  supposed  was  the  culprit,  denied  all 
knowledge  of  the  accident. 

65.  The  furniture's  removal  was  an  unpleasant  piece  of  work. 

66.  I  wish  you  would  leave  that  matter  go  until  it  can  be  settled 
between  he  and  his  mother  and  I. 

67.  I  expect  a  raise  in  salary  this  fall. 

68.  She  muttered  invectives  upon  slow  shop-girls  accompanied 
with  signs  of  weariness  and  disgust. 


EXERCISES  351 

69.  The  market  was  unsteady,  caused  by  a  persistent  rumor  of 
the  President's  death. 

70.  Due  to  a  mistake,  he  did  not  arrive  in  time. 

71.  Due  to  the  bad  weather,  we  delayed  our  journey. 

72.  They  were  planning  on  going  to  school  in  the  fall. 

73.  I  am  very  delighted  to  know  that  you  have  been  so  fortun- 
ate. 

74.  These  are  the  advantages  of  a  college  education:  It  gives  you 
the  means  of  earning  a  living,  and  one  can  enjoy  life  more. 

75.  It  is  a  person's  duty  to  make  himself  agreeable,  and  he 
should  consider  the  comfort  of  others. 

76.  Not  wishing  to  insist,  nevertheless,  this  point  demands  atten- 
tion. 

77.  Father  would  never  let  we  children  do  that. 

78.  My  folks  were  real  pleased  to  hear  of  my  success. 

79.  This  scanty  data  is  all  that  we  have. 

80.  The  room  was  quite  dark,  but  not  entirely  so. 

81.  In  the  ordinary  high  school  a  boy  gets  all  his  education  with 
his  head;  but  his  hands  also  come  into  play  in  the  manual 
training  high  school. 

82.  I  will  be  very  pleased  to  have  you  call. 

83.  The  workman  fell  off  of  the  ladder. 

84.  The  memory  of  other  authors  is  kept  alive  by  their  works; 
but  the  memory  of  Johnson  keeps  his  works  alive. 

85.  I  wrote  her  to  extend  her  visit,  and  that  we  should  get 
along  very  well  without  her. 

86.  I  wish  I  was  at  home. 

87.  He  noticed  four  men  playing  cards  and  that  the  same  man 
won  every  time. 

88.  He  was  charmed  by  the  prospect  of  money,  like  a  snake 
charms  a  bird. 

89.  I  do  not  know  if  I  can  come  or  not. 

90.  That  happy  time  will  never  be  forgotten  by  me. 

91.  The  fact  that  he  was  trying  to  conceal  something  was 
noticed  by  me. 

92.  The  United  States  has  prospered  during  a  long  period  of 
protection;  but  under  free  trade  the  same  period  in  England 
has  been  one  of  prosperity. 

93.  Turning  now  to  another  argument,  the  law  is  seen  to  be 
unjust. 

94.  The  date's  importance  was  entirely  overlooked  by  him. 


352  EXERCISES 

95.  This  is  Mrs.  Emerson's  parcel ;  she  will  call  for  it  to-morrow. 

96.  Since  our  teapot  is  broken,  we  cannot  have  any  this  after- 
noon. 

97.  Cigarette-smoking  ought  to  be  forbidden,  as  they  have  such 
an  injurious  effect. 

98.  Did  you  take  in  the  show  last  night? 

99.  John  come  running  up  to  me  and  asked  me  who  it  was  that 
had  just  dove  into  the  water. 

100.  I  should  hardly  say  that  a  minister  ought  to  smoke,  and  yet 
many  of  them  do. 

101.  It  is  no  use  telling  him  about  it. 

102.  Mr.  Curtis  and  wife  are  at  the  hotel. 

103.  A  gasoline  engine  uses  a  great  deal  of  it  in  one  day. 

104.  In  back  of  the  barn  there  was  an  old  tool  shed. 

105.  The  speaker  came  forward  to  the  edge  of  the  platform,  when 
the  whole  audience  cheered. 

106.  The  almanac  used  to  be  a  very  popular  piece  of  reading,  and 
numbers  of  them  have  been  found  in  old  libraries. 

107.  We  cordially  extend  the  invitation  to  yourself  and  friends. 

108.  When  they  begun  to  ask  questions,  he  became  very  con- 
fused. 

109.  When  I  saw  that  the  book  had  laid  there  all  night,  I  remem- 
bered that  I  had  left  another  volume  of  the  history  laying 
on  the  window  sill. 

110.  The  lamp's  chimney  was  badly  cracked. 

111.  The  president's  election  was  not  to  be  accomplished  without 
some  difficulty. 

112.  He  was  a  very  tall  man  and  wore  black  clothes,  and  he  seri- 
ously objected  to  anything  frivolous. 

113.  At  that  moment  his  wife  came  into  the  room,  and  by  acci- 
dent he  hit  her  with  the  hatchet  instead  of  the  cat. 

114.  Add  a  small  quantity  of  H2S04,  and  put  a  stopper  in  the  flask 
that  has  a  hole  in  it. 

115.  There  is  always  the  risk  that  the  letter  will  be  discovered  by 
someone  else  with  embarrassing  results. 

116.  Someone  came  down  the  hall  swinging  his  fists,  upon  which 
were  boxing-gloves,  with  little  or  no  regard  for  our  feel- 
ings. 

117.  I  thought  that  picture  was  beautiful,  but  all  the  rest  very 
ugly. 

118.  The  butcher  and  baker  came  into  the  meeting  a  little  late. 


EXERCISES  353 

119.  The  man  was  taken  to  prison  and  his  confederates  arrested. 

120.  Saturdays  I  usually  go  out  of  the  city. 

121.  He  spoke  in  a  low  voice,  for  he  thought  that  was  wiser. 

122.  He  decided  to  have  a  pantry,  laundry,  and  serving-room  on 
that  side  of  the  building. 

123.  The  syrup  should  be  allowed  to  cool  for  two  or  three 
minutes,  then  slowly  pour  it  into  the  beaten  egg-whites. 

124.  The  best  results  are  accomplished  by  placing  the  paddle 
straight  down  in  the  water  at  a  good  depth,  and  to  take  a 
long  stroke  backward. 

125.  He  did  not  understand  what  was  expected  of  him,  so  he  came 
back  at  once. 

126.  Unlike  her  first  encounter  with  the  man,  she  looked  straight 
at  him. 

127.  Although  of  no  financial  advantage,  we  spent  an  enjoyable 
summer,  and  had  a  great  deal  of  experience. 

128.  One  of  the  most  expensive  kinds  of  a  retail  store  is  the  small 
country  store. 

129.  When  this  pen  is  empty,  it  can  be  filled  by  collapsing  the 
tube,  with  a  button  or  lever  which  reaches  to  the  outside, 
dipping  the  pen  in  ink  and  then  releasing  the  tube. 

130.  From  the  above  statements  it  must  soon  be  the  conclusion 
that  the  five-cent  theater  is  bad. 

131.  While  we  were  getting  our  picnic  dinner,  we  went  in  swim- 
ming with  beans  and  cocoa  on  the  fire. 

132.  In  taking  a  ride  in  the  calm  of  the  night  with  an  occasional 
hoot  of  an  owl,  we  could  hear  a  rippling  noise  which  we  could 
not  account  for. 

133.  Passing  on,  the  road  became  covered  with  large  boulders. 

134.  The  map  is  about  two  feet  square,  the  upper  half  being  the 
map,  and  the  lower  half  is  printed  matter  explaining  the 
map. 

135.  Dryden,  having  died  in  1700,  wrote  a  criticism  on  dramatic 
poesy. 

136.  Imagine  yourself  on  a  pleasant  summer  day,  when  all  the 
air  is  filled  with  the  golden  sunshine,  and  the  birds  are 
singing  gaily  in  the  trees,  placed  on  a  beautiful  country 
road. 

137.  The  woman's  rescue  was  accomplished  with  no  little  diffi- 
culty. 

138.  You  ought  to  definitely  state  that  fact  in  your  report. 


354  EXERCISES 

139.  My  memoranda  on  this  matter  is  incomplete. 

140.  The  Zaandam  belongs  to  the  Holland- American  line,  and 
should  have  reached  port  two  days  ago. 

141.  No  one  should  choose  anything  for  their  life's  work  that  they 
do  not  like. 

142.  He  is  a  confirmed  liar,  but  he  does  not  do  this  maliciously, 
but  rather  to  save  himself. 

143.  The  older  girl  stood  up,  took  her  sister's  hands,  and  both  of 
them  left  the  room. 

144.  Meeting  Fortunato  on  the  street  one  evening  during  the 
Carnival  season,  when  he  knows  he  will  be  intoxicated,  he 
works  upon  his  pride,  and  jealousy  by  telling  him  that  he 
has  purchased  a  cask  of  Amontillado. 

145.  Scientists  who  have  investigated  the  results  of  smoking  on 
the  bodies  and  characters  of  young  men  declare  that  it 
stunts  the  body  and  dwarfs  the  mind. 

146.  Maggie  Tulliver  is  George  Eliot  herself.  Mrs.  Poyser  in 
many  ways  resembles  her  mother. 

147.  Oswald  M.  Hutchins,  Elroy  Parsons,  and  George  Parsons, 
of  Lenox,  Massachusetts,  were  rescued  from  the  branches 
of  trees  on  October  Mountain,  where  they  had  been  held 
captive  for  ten  hours  by  two  stag  elk,  by  Henry  R.  Cappelle, 
gamekeeper  of  the  Harry  Payne  Whitney  preserve,  and 
two  assistants. 

148.  The  boys  did  not  care  to  shoot  the  elk,  as  they  were  worth 
$1000  apiece,  and  therefore  were  obliged  to  remain  in  the 
tree  shivering  with  cold. 

149.  One  does  a  good  many  things  when  away  that  one  would  n't 
do  at  home,  and  one  has  to  put  up  with  many  things  that 
one  don't  like. 

150.  The  electric  bell  is  very  handy  both  for  the  caller  and  those 
in  the  house;  some  people  think  they  are  too  noisy,  and  so 
will  not  have  them. 

151.  He  always  wore  glasses,  and  even  if  he  was  not  a  well-made 
man,  he  was  very  intelligent. 

152.  We  retired  to  our  staterooms  about  midnight,  and  wished 
that  we  might  get  up  in  the  morning  to  see  the  sun  rise,  but 
by  that  time  we  had  forgotten  it,  and  slept  until  the  whistle 
blew  for  the  landing  to  the  first  city  at  which  we  were  to 
stop. 

153.  Thus  a  street  was  formed,  which  was  firm  and  clean,  still 


EXERCISES  355 

easy  for  the  horses  to  travel  on,  and  vehicles  passed  by  very 
quietly. 

154.  If  both  paddlers  worked  on  one  side,  the  course  of  the  canoe 
would  be  irregular  and  undetermined,  and  causing  it  to  turn 
around  instead  of  going  straight  ahead. 

155.  These  two  ways  of  making  hydrogen  are  the  most  used  both 
in  the  laboratory  and  commercially. 

156.  It  is  about  six  inches  long,  one  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
is  usually  made  of  hard  wood. 

157.  Here  I  am  a  student  in  the  University,  having  had  two 
months  of  preparation  for  my  future  success,  which  I  have  a 
great  deal  of  confidence  in,  but  on  the  other  hand  remains 
to  be  seen. 

158.  One  usually  has  to  wait  an  hour  or  more  in  this  room,  when 
someone  comes  to  the  door  and  calls  out  your  group. 

159.  While  we  were  walking  along  the  bank  of  the  river,  a  man 
rowed  by  in  a  large  boat  very  heavy,  old,  and  awkward, 
and  which  appeared  to  be  leaking,  although  at  that  dis- 
tance we  could  not  be  sure  whether  the  man  was  bailing, 
being  on  a  high  cliff  and  not  blessed  with  very  good  eyesight. 

160.  He  told  me  that  there  were  two  things  that  I  could  do,  — 
repair  the  damage  that  I  had  done,  or  I  might  take  my  be- 
longings and  go. 

161.  We  watch  him  as  he  hastens  along  with  long  strides,  Gyp 
close  at  his  heels,  out  of  the  work-yard  and  along  the  high 
road  to  his  home. 

162.  He  had  great  faults,  which  he  failed  to  master,  and  this 
caused  great  chagrin  and  pain  to  his  family. 

163.  Her  descriptions  are  cleverly  handled  in  a  very  few  words, 
differing  from  Scott  in  this  respect. 

164.  The  period  was  one  of  the  saddest  in  his  life  to  which  he 
never  cared  to  refer. 

165.  About  1824  the  elder  Dickens  was  left  a  legacy,  so  he  left 
the  Marshalsea. 

166.  We  do  not  find  Jane  Eyre  faltering,  but  forgetful  of  every- 
thing except  what  she  believes  she  should  do,  she  presses  on. 

167.  I  can  remember  my  mother  and  how  I  worshiped  her  as  a 
very  young  child. 

168.  It  may  have  been  because  they  depended  so  much  on  them- 
selves, so  little  on  others,  and  on  their  mutual  interests  and 
ambitions  for  their  brother. 


356  EXERCISES 

169.  When  still  quite  a  young  girl  she  was  convinced  of  the  empty 
superstitions  in  the  faith  that  she  had  heretofore  adhered 
to,  but  although  at  first  she  was  willing  to  be  separated 
from  her  father  for  the  sake  of  standing  by  her  opinions, 
she  soon  decided  that  it  was  not  worth  the  severing  of 
human  ties  and  preferred  apparent  conformity  and  the  love 
of  her  father. 

170.  Although  a  worldly  success,  she  shows  that  her  characters 
may  be  a  failure  morally. 


APPENDIX   II 

A  WORKING  LIBRARY  OF 'BOOKS  ON 
COMPOSITION 

The  following  list  of  books  contains  in  alphabetical  order  those 
books  which  have  been  referred  to  in  the  treatment  of  special  topics, 
except  the  Short  Story  and  Drama.  Place  and  date  of  publication 
are  given  only  in  this  list. 

Abbott,  E.  A.  How  to  Write  Clearly.  Boston,  1907. 
Adams  John.    Exposition  and  Illustration  in  Teaching.    New  York, 

1910. 
Aikin,  W.  A.    The  Voice:  An  Introduction  to  Practical  Phonology. 

New  York,  1910. 
Albright,  E.  M.  Descriptive  Writing.  New  York,  1911. 
Altmaiek,  C.  L.  Commercial  Correspondence  and  Postal  Information. 

New  York,  1905. 
Ashmun,  Margaret.   Modern  Short  Stories.   New  York,  1914. 
Ashmun,  Margaret.    Prose  Literature  for  Secondary  Schools,  with 

Some  Suggestions  for  Correlation  with  Composition.  Boston,  c.  1910. 
Baker,  F.  T.,  and  Abbott,  H.  V.  English  Composition,  New  York, 

1908. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.   A  College  Manual  of  Rhetoric.   New  York,  1909. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.   Composition  Oral  and  Written.   New  York,  c.  1909. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.  How  to  Write;  a  Handbook  based  on  the  English  Bible. 

New  York,  1906. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.  Specimens  of  Prose  Description.   New  York,  1895. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.  The  Expository  Paragraph  and  Sentence.  New  York, 

1901. 
Baldwin,  C.  S.  Writing  and  Speaking;  A  Textbook  of  Rhetoric.  New 

York,  1910. 
Bates,  Arlo.   Talks  on  Writing  English.  Boston,  1896-1901,  2  vols. 
Belding,  A.  G.   Commercial  Correspondence.   New  York,  c.  1905. 
Bell,  R.  H.    The  Changing  Values  of  English  Speech.    New  York, 

1909. 
Bennett,  Arnold.  Literary  Taste  and  How  to  Form  It.  New  York, 

n.d. 
Berkeley,  F.  C.   A  College  Course  in  Writing  from  Models.    New 

York,  1910. 


358  REFERENCES 

Bray,  J.  W.  A  History  of  English  Critical  Terms.  Boston,  1898. 
Brewster,  W.  T.  E?iglish  Composition  and  Style.   New  York,  1912. 
Brewster,  W.  T.  Specimens  of  Narration.   New  York,  1895. 
Brewster,  W.  T.  Studies  in  Structure  and  Style.   New  York,  1896. 
Brewster,  W.  T.  Representative  Essays  on  the  Theory  of  Style.  New 

York,  1905. 
Brewster,  W.  T.   Writing  English  Prose.   New  York,  1913. 
Brown,  R.  W.,  and  Barnes,  N.  W.    The  Art  of  Writing  English;  A 

Book  for  College  Classes.   New  York,  1913. 
Butler,  G.  P.  School  Eiiglish.   New  York,  1894. 
Canby,  H.  S.,  and  others.  English  Composition  in  Theory  and  Practice. 

New  York,  1913. 
Carnell,  J.  R.,  and  Hoit,  B.  S.   Modern  Letter-Writing.  Albany,  c. 

1903. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.    Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition;  Second 

High  School  Course.   New  York,  1900. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.   Model  English  Prose.   New  York,  1905. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.    Rhetoric  and  English  Composition.    New  York, 

1906. 
Cody,  Sherwin.    The  Art  of  Writing  and  Speaking  the  English  Lan- 
guage.  New  York,  1903-05,  6  vols. 
Cody,   Sherwin.    Success  in  Letter-Writing,  Business  and  Social. 

Chicago,  1906. 
Cook,  A.  S.    The  Bible  and  English  Prose  Style.   Boston,  1892. 
Cooper,  F.  T.   The  Craftsmanship  of  Writing.   New  York,  1911. 
Cooper,  Lane.    Theories  of  Style;  with  Especial  Reference  to  Prose 

Composition.   New  York,  1912. 
Clark,  J.  S.  A  Practical  Rhetoric.   New  York,  1886. 
Crashaw,  W.  H.   The  Interpretation  of  Literature.   New  York,  1896. 
Crissey,  Forrest.    Handbook  of  Modern  Business  Correspondence. 

Chicago,  1908. 
Davidson,  J.  W.   The  Correspondent.   New  York,  1886. 
Donnelly,  F.  P.  Imitation  and  Analysis;  English  Exercises  based  on 

Irving 's  Sketch  Book.   Boston,  1902. 
Duncan,  C.  S.,  Beck,  E.  L.,  and  Graves,  W.  L.  Prose  Specimens  for 

Use  with  Classes  in  English  Composition.   Boston,  1913. 
Dwyer,  I.  E.   The  Business  Letter.   Boston,  1914. 
Dye,  Charity.   Letters  and  Letter-Writing.   Indianapolis,  c.  1903. 
Earle,   John.    English  Prose;  its  Elements,   History,  and   Usage. 

London,  1890. 
Earle,  S.  C.    The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Technical  Writing.    New 

York,  1911. 
Emerson,  O.  F.   History  of  the  English  Language.   New  York,  1895. 
Esenwein,  J.  B.   How  to  Attract  and  Hold  an  Audience.   New  York, 

1902. 


REFERENCES  359 

Espenshade,  A.  H.    The  Essentials  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric. 

Boston,  1904. 
Everts,  K.  J.   The  Speaking  Voice.  New  York,  c.  1908. 
Fansler,  H.  E.,  and  Fansler,  D.  S.  Exercises  in  English  Form  and 

Diction.  Chicago,  c.  1909. 
Forbes,  A.  H.  Essays  and  How  to  Write  Them.   London,  1910. 
Foster,  W.  T.     Argumentation  and  Debating.     Boston,  1908. 
Foster,  W.  T.  Essentials  of  Exposition  and  Argument.  Boston,  1911. 
Fowler,  N.  C.   The  Art  of  Letter-Writing.   New  York,  1913. 
Fuess,  C.  M.     Selected  English  Letters.     Boston,  1914. 
Fulton,  Edward.   English  Prose  Composition.   New  York,  1911. 
Fulton,  M.  G.  Expository  Writing;  Materials  for  a  College  Course  in 

Exposition  by  Analysis  and  Imitation.   New  York,  1912.  . 
Gaskell,  G.  A.  How  to  Write  for  the  Press.   New  York,  1884. 
Gardiner,  J.  H.,  Kittredge,  G.  L.,  and  Arnold,  S.  L.   Manual  of 

Composition  and  Rhetoric.   Boston.  1907. 
Gavit,  H.  E.   The  Etiquette  of  Correspondence.   New  York,  1911. 
Gayley,  C.  M.,  and  Scott,  F.  N.  An  Introduction  to  the  Methods  and 

Materials  of  Literary  Criticism.   New  York,  1901. 
Genung,  J.  F.   Handbook  of  Rhetorical  Analysis.   Boston,  1891. 
Genung,  J.  F.    The  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric.   Boston,  1893. 
Genung,  J.  F.   The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric.   Boston,  1901. 
Greenough,  J.  B.    Words  and  Their  Ways  in  English  Speech.   New 

York,  1912. 
Grose,  H.  B.   Specimens  of  English  Composition  for  Use  in  College 

Classes  in  Rhetoric.  Chicago,  1909. 
Hammond,  H.  W.  Style-Book  of  Business  English.    New  York,  1913 

(5th  ed.). 
Hanson,  C.  L.  English  Comvosition.  Boston,  1908. 
Herrick,  Robert,  and  Damon,  L.  T.  New  Composition  and  Rhetoric 

for  Schools.  Chicago,  1911. 
Higginson,  T.  W.    Hints  on  Writing  and  Speech-Making.    Boston, 

1889. 
Hill,  A.  S.  Beginnings  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition.  New  York,  1902. 
Hill,  A.  S.  Our  English.   New  York,  1889. 
Hill,  A.  S.   The  Principles  of  Rhetoric.   New  York,  1895. 
Hinsdale,  B.  A.   Teaching  the  Language  Arts.   New  York,  1909. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.   Enlarged  Practice-Book  in  English  Composition. 

New  York,  1910. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.  Rhetoric  and  the  Study  of  Literature.    New  York, 

1913. 
Hitchcock,  A.  M.   Theme-Book  in  English  Composition.  New  York. 

1910. 
Hyslop,  J.  H.  Logic  and  Argument.   New  York,  1900. 
Jelliffe,  R.  A.  Handbook  of  Exposition.  New  York,  1914. 


360  REFERENCES 

Jones,  D.  D.   The  Technique  of  Speech.   New  York.  1909. 

Jordan,  M.  A.   Correct  Writing  and  Speaking.   New  York,  1906. 

Ketcham,  V.  A.  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Argumentation  and 
Debate.   New  York,  1914. 

Kimball,  L.  G.  The  Structure  of  the  English  Sentence.  New  York, 
1900. 

Kittredge,  G.  L.,  and  Farley,  F.  E.  An  Advanced  English  Gram- 
mar. Boston,  1913. 

Knowles,  F.  L.  Practical  Hints  for  Young  Writers.  Boston,  1897. 

Krapp,  G.  P.  Modern  English,  its  Growth  and  Present  Use.  New 
York,  1909. 

Lamont,  Hammond.  Specimens  of  Exposition.   New  York,  1896. 

Lewes,  G.  H.   The  Principles  of  Success  in  Literature.  Boston,  1891. 

Lewis,  E.  H.   Business  English.   Chicago,  1911. 

Lewis,  E.  H.  Specimens  of  the  Forms  of  Discourse.  New  York,  1900. 

Linn,  J.  W.  The  Essentials  of  English  Composition.  New  York,  1912. 

Linn,  J.  W.  Illustrative  Examples  of  English  Composition.  New 
York,  1913. 

Lockwood,  S.  E.  H.  Lessons  in  English.   Boston,  1889. 

Matthews,  Brander.   Parts  of  Speech.   New  York,  1910. 

McCool,  T.  H.  Twentieth  Century  Busi?iess  Letters  and  Forms. 
Philadelphia,  c.  1912. 

Miles,  E.  H.   Essays  in  the  Making.   London,  1906. 

Mitchell,  T.  C.,  and  Carpenter,  G.  R.  Exposition  in  Classroom 
Practice.   New  York,  1907. 

Nason,  A.  H.  Short  Themes;  A  Freshman  Manual  for  the  First  Semes- 
ter.  New  York  University,  1910. 

Nason,  A.  H.  Talks  on  Theme-Writing  and  Kindred  Topics.  New 
York,  1909. 

Neal,  R.  W.   Thought-Building  in  Composition.  New  York,  1912. 

Nesfield,  J.  C.  Errors  in  E?iglish  Composition.   London,  1911. 

Nesfield,  J.  C.  Manual  of  English  Grammar  and  Composition.  Lon- 
don, 1911. 

Nesfield,  J.  C.  Senior  Course  of  English  Composition.  London,  1910. 

Nevins,  A.  G.  The  Blue  Pencil  and  How  to  Avoid  It.  New  York,  1890. 

Newcomer,  A.  G.  A  Practical  Course  in  English  Composition. 
Boston,  1898. 

Newcomer,  A.  G.,  and  Seward,  S.  S.  Rhetoric  in  Practice.  New 
York,  1908. 

Nichol,  John.  English  Composition.   London,  1912. 

Nichol,  John,  and  McCormick,  W.  S.  Questions  and  Exercises  on 
English  Composition.   London,  1890. 

Notes,  E.  C.   Basic  Principles  in  Oral  English.   Boston,  n.d. 

Nutter,  C.  R.,  Hersey,  F.  W.  C,  and  Greenough,  C.  N.  Speci- 
mens of  Prose  Composition.  Boston,  1907. 


REFERENCES  361 

O'Brien,  S.  R.  English  for  Foreigners.  2  vols.  Boston,  1909. 
Pearson,  H.  G.  The  Principles  of  Composition.  Boston,  1898. 
Percival,  Milton,  and  Jelliffe,  R.  A.  Specimens  of  Exposition  and 

Argument.   New  York,  1910. 
Perry,  F.  M.    An  Introductory  Course  in  Exposition.    New  York, 

1908. 
Phelps,  Austin,  and  Frink,  H.  A.  Rhetoric;  Its  Theory  and  Practice. 

New  York,  1895. 
Raleigh,  Walter.  Style.  London,  1913. 
Rankin,  T.  E.,  and  Brumm,  J.  R.  Materials  for  the  Study  of  Rhetoric 

and  Composition  in  the  University  of  Michigan.  Ann  Arbor,  n.d. 
Rickard,  T.  A.  A  Guide  to  Technical  Writing.  San  Francisco,  1910. 
Roe,  F.  W.,  and  Elliott,  G.  R.  English  Prose;  A  Series  of  Related 

Essays.   New  York,  1913. 
Roustand,    M.    La   Composition  francaise.   Paris,  n.d.    (1.  La  de- 
scription et  le  portrait.    2.  La  narration.    3.  Le  dialogue.    4.  La 

leitre  et  le  discours.    5.  La  dissertation  littiraire.   6.  La  dissertation 

morale.) 
Saintsbury,  G.  E.  B.   A  History  of  Criticism  and  Literary  Taste  in 

Europe.   New  York,  1905. 
Saintsbury,  G.  E.  B.  A  History  of  English  Prose  Rhythm.    London, 

1912. 
Scott,  F.  N.  Essays  on  Style,  Rhetoric,  and  Language.  Boston,  1893. 
Scott,  F.  N.,  and  Denney,  J.  V.   Aphorisms  for  Teachers  of  English 

Composition,  and  the  Class  Hour  in  English  Composition.  Boston, 

1905. 
Scott,  F.  N.,  and  Denney,  J.  V.  Paragraph-Writing;  A  Rhetoric  for 

Colleges.  Boston,  1909. 
Seward,  S.  S.  Note-Taking.   Boston,  1910. 
Shaw,  E.  R.  English  Composition  by  Practice.  New  York,  1892. 
Sheffield,  A.  D.   Grammar  and  Thinking.   New  York,  1912. 
Sheran,  W.  H.  A  Handbook  of  Literary  Criticism.  New  York,  1905. 
Skeat,  W.  W.  English  Dialects  from  the  Eighth  Century  to  the  Present 

Day.  Cambridge,  1912. 
Smith,  L.  P.   The  English  Language.   London,  1912. 
SoRelle,  R.  P.  Office  Training  for  Stenographers.  New  York,  c.  1911. 
Spencer,  Herbert.  Philosophy  of  Style.   New  York,  1895. 
Stebbins,  C.  M.     A  Progressive  Course  in  English  for  Secondary 

Schools.  Boston,  c.  1909. 
Steeves,  H.  R.,  and  Ristine,  F.  H.  Representative  Essays  in  Modern 

Thought.   New  York,  1913. 
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362  REFERENCES 

Swinton,  William.  School  Composition.  New  York,  1905. 
Sykes,  F.  H.  Elementary  English  Composition.   Toronto,  1900. 
Taylor,  Isaac.    Words  and  Places.   New  York,  n.d.    (Everyman's 

Library.) 
Taylor,  J.  R.   Composition  in  Narration.   New  York,  1910. 
Thomas,  C.  S.,  and  Howe,  W.  D.    Composition  and  Rhetoric.   New 

York,  1908. 
Thomas,  Helen.  A  Study  of  the  Paragraph.   New  York,  1912. 
Thorndike,  A.  H.    The  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition.   New 

York,  1905. 
Waddy,   Virginia.    Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition.    New 

York,  1889. 
Ward,  C.  C.  Oral  Composition.   New  York,  1914. 
Webster,  W.  F.    Elements  of  English  Grammar.     Boston,  1904. 
Webster,  W.  F.     English:    Composition   and  Literature.    Boston, 

1902. 
Webster,  W.  F.  English  for  Secondary  Schools.   Boston,  1912. 
Welsh,  A.  H.  English  Composition.   New  York,  1898. 
Wendell,  Barrett.  English  Composition.   New  York,  1912. 
Williams,  R.  O.  Some  Questions  of  Good  English.   New  York,  1897. 
Williams,  William.   Composition  and  Rhetoric  by  Practice.  Boston, 

1903. 
Winchester,  C.  T.    Some  Principles  of  Literary  Criticism.     New 

York,  1903. 
Wisconsin,   University   op.    Requirements  for  Admission  to  the 

Freshman  English  Course.   Madison,  Wis.,  1913. 
Woolley,  E.  C.  Exercises  in  English.   Boston,  1911. 
Woolley,  E.  C.  Handbook  of  Composition.  Boston,  1909. 
Woolley,  E.  C.    The  Mechanics  of  Writing.   Boston,  1909. 
Worsfold,  W.  B.   The  Principles  of  Criticism.  London,  1897. 
Young,  F.  C,  (Berkeley),  and  Young,  Karl.    Freshman  English. 

New  York,  1914. 


INDEX 

Note:  Words  and  expressions  frequently  misused  are  printed  in  italics. 


Abbreviations,  3,  35-37,  122;  list  of, 
36-37;  in  letters,  316. 

Absolute  phrases,  10. 

Action,  unity  of,  in  drama,  297. 

Address,  direct,  9. 

Addressing  letters,  317. 

Adjectives,  51 ;  series,  10;  proper,  31. 

Adverbs,  51. 

Affect,  167. 

Affectation,  150,  276. 

Ages,  39. 

Aggravate,  167. 

Agreement,  grammatical,  71-72; 
exercise,  72. 

Allegorical  story,  270-86. 

Allegory,  158. 

Alliteration,  152,  236. 

All  the  farther,  168. 

Allusions,  149. 

Alright,  45. 

Also,  semicolon  with,  6. 

Alterations  in  manuscript,  23,  200. 

American  short  story,  282-83. 

Analysis,  of  words,  136-37;  in  defi- 
nition, 253. 

Analytical,  outline,  194-97:  story, 
270. 

And,  10,  168. 

And  oblige,  318. 

And  which,    168. 

Antecedent,  51. 

Apostrophe,  18,  43-45. 

Apposition,  8,  50. 

Argumentation,  254-60;  purpose, 
254;  material,  255;  scope,  255-56; 
inductive,  256;  deductive,  256- 
57;  evidence  and  proof,  257;  fal- 
lacies, 257-58;  brief,  258;  sugges- 
tions, 259;  references,  259-60. 

Arrangement  of  manuscript,  199- 
201. 

Article  with  noun,  88. 


As,  168. 

As  well  as,  52. 

Aught,  168. 

Autobiographies,  reading  list,  266- 

67. 
Autobiography,  261. 

Balance,  168. 

Beg,  169. 

Between,  169. 

Bibliography,  221-23,  261. 

Biographee,  261. 

Biographer,  261. 

Biographies,  reading  list,  265-66. 

Biography,  260-67;  purposes,  260- 
61;  terms  used,  261;  materials, 
261 ;  methods,  262-64;  style,  264- 
65;  list  of  biographies,  265-66; 
collected  biographies,  266;  auto- 
biographies, 266-67. 

Blanks,  150. 

Blame  on,  169. 

Boughten,  169. 

Brackets,  24. 

Brief,  the,  258. 

Business  letters,  319. 

But,  169. 

Can  and  may,  169. 

Canceling  in  manuscript,  23,  200. 

Can't  seem,  169. 

Capitals,  30-33. 

Case,  49-51. 

Caused  by,  169. 

Century  Dictionary  and  Cyclopedia, 

125. 
Cf.   220. 

Change  of  point  of  view,  68. 
Character  in  short  story,  280-82. 
Claim,  170. 
Clause,   punctuation  of,    10;   tense 

in,  55;  elliptical,  83. 


364 


INDEX 


Clerk,  170. 

Climax,  in  story,  279 ;  in  drama,  298. 

Close  of  sentence,  92. 

Collective  nouns,  53. 

Colon,  4-5. 

Comma,  8-16;  with  and,  10;  cau- 
tions, 15-16. 

Commercial  correspondence,  319. 

Common  errors,  167-84. 

Comparisons,  89. 

Complected,  170. 

Compound  sentence,  75-77. 

Conclusion,  of  sentences,  92;  in 
drama,  299;  of  letters,  317-20. 

Concurrence  of  like  sounds,  152. 

Conjunctions,  52. 

Connection,  90. 

Consonants,  116. 

Construction,  shift  of,  68-69;  exer- 
cise, 69-71;  of  short  story,  279- 
80. 

Content  and  form,  145-47. 

Contractions,  18. 

Contrast  in  definition,  253. 

Conventions  of  drama,  296. 

Coordination,  75-76. 

Corrections,  200,  202-03. 

Correspondence,  312-27;  social  and 
friendly  letters,  312;  exercises, 
319;  commercial  letters,  319;  fold- 
ing, 322;  addresses,  323;  refer- 
ences, 326. 

Could  of,  170. 

Cp.,  220. 

Criticism,  of    description,    236-37; 
of  exposition,  246;  and  references, 
247-48. 
Crowding  manuscript,  200. 
Cunning,  170. 

Dangerous,  170. 

Dangling  modifiers,  82-84;  exercise, 
84-85. 

Dash,  16-18. 

Dates,  37. 

Decimate,  170. 

Deductive  reasoning,  256. 

Definition,  251-53;  logical,  252-53; 
exercises,  253;  synthesis,  253; 
analysis,  253;  contrast,  253;  ex- 
ercises, 253-64. 


Demean,  170. 

Demonstrative  adjectives,  86. 
Denouement  in  drama,  299. 
Dependent  clause,  10. 
Dipdt,  171. 

Description,  224-41 ;  definition,  224; 
relation  to  other  forms  of  expres- 
sion, 224-26;  and  painting,  225- 
26;  fundamental  factors,  226-27; 
methods  of,  227-28;  points  of 
view,  228-30;  material  for,  230- 
32;  terms  in,  232-33;  of  indivi- 
duals, 233-34;  descriptive  words, 
language,  235-36;  criticism  of, 
236-37;  exercises,  237-39;  theme 
subjects,  239-40;  references,  240- 
41. 
Detective  stories,  289. 
Determination.    See  Shall  and  will, 

58,  59. 
Diacritical  marks,  122,  164-65. 
Dialect,  story,  270;  in  short  story, 

277 ;  stories,  list  of,  287-88. 
Dialogue,  paragraphing  of,  100;  in 

short  story,  276. 
Diction,  167-88. 

Dictionaries,    use    of,    121-23;    ex- 
ercise,   123-25;   English,    125-26; 
foreign,     126-27;     obsolete    and 
provincial     words,     126;     slang, 
126. 
Didactic  story,  270,  286. 
Die  with,  171. 
Differ  with,  171. 
Different,  171. 
Direct  quotation,  19. 
Division  of  words,  39. 
Division  of  theme,  193-99. 
Domestic  life,  list  of  stories  on,  285- 

86. 
Dominant  impression,  232. 
Don't,  171. 

Double  negative,  152. 
Drama,  294,  307;  and  description, 
225;  individual  in,  234-35;  defini- 
tion, 294;  types,  295;  conventions, 
296 ;  factors,  297 ;  unities,  297 ;  plot 
structure,  298;  how  to  study,  299; 
how  to  read,  301;  exercises,  302; 
reading  list,  303;  topics  for  dis- 
cussion, 305;  references,  307. 


INDEX 


365 


Dramatic  interest  in  short   story, 

269,  284. 
Due  to,  171. 

Each  other,  171. 

Editorial  we,  150. 

Effect.   See  Affect. 

Either  and  neither,  171. 

Elliptical  clause,  83. 

Else,  44. 

Emphasis,  92-94;  by  italics,  34;  by 

repetition,    93;    exercise,    94-95; 

in  exposition,  244. 
English  short  story,  282. 
Enthuse,  172. 

Envelopes,  addresses  on,  323-24. 
Erasures  in  manuscript,  23. 
Etc.,  35. 
Et  seq.,  220. 
Euphony, 152-53. 
Evidence,  257. 
Excessive  coordination,  77. 
Exclamation  point,  4. 
Exercises  — 

Definition,  253. 

Description,  237-40. 

Dictionary,  use  of,  123. 

Drama,  302-07. 

Exposition,  249-51. 

Figures  of  speech,  161. 

Language,  188. 

Letter-writing,  319. 

Miscellaneous  errors,  102. 

Narration,  289-92. 

Punctuation,  7,  14,  21,  22,  25. 

Sequence  of  tenses,  57. 

Sentence  structure,  69,  72,  74,  77, 
80,  81,  84,  89,  91,  94,  95,  97. 

Shall  and  will,  61. 

Style,  153. 

Synonyms,  131. 

Syntax,  53. 

Tenses,  57. 

Translation,  311. 

Voice,  62. 

Word  analysis,  136. 

Words,  129. 
Expect,  172. 
Expectation    ("simple    futurity"), 

58. 
Exposition,  241-51;  and  description, 


224;  definition  of,  241;  purposes, 
241-42;  uses,  242;  preparation 
for,  242-43;  method,  243-44; 
emphasis  in,  244;  transition,  244— 
45;  illustration,  245;  criticism, 
246;  references,  246-48;  reading 
list,  248-49;  exercises,  249-51. 
Extended  quotation,  217;  quota- 
tion marks  with,  19. 

f.,  220. 

Fable,  159. 

Factor,  172. 

Fallacies,  257-58. 

Fanciful  stories,  289. 

Farther.   See  All  the  farther. 

Fennell's,    Standard   Dictionary  of 

Anglicized   Words   and    Phrases, 

126. 
Fetch,  172. 
Fewer.   See  Less. 
Figures.   See  Numbers. 
Figures  of  language,  236. 
Figures  of  speech,  157-61;  exercise, 

161-64;  references,  164. 
Firstly,  172. 
Fix,  172. 

Folding  letters,  322. 
Folks,  172. 

Footnotes  and  references,  219-21. 
Foreign  phrases,  142-44. 
Foreign  words,  140-41. 
Form  and  content,  145-47. 
Formality  in  letters,  316. 
For  to,  173. 
Free  translation,  308. 
French  short  story,  282. 
Friendly  letters,  312. 
Fundamental  image,  232. 
Funny,  172. 

Geographical    names,    punctuatioD 

of,  9. 
German  short  story,  283. 
Gerund,  44. 

Gerund  phrase,  dangling,  82. 
Gestuie,  111. 
Gesture,  173. 
Got,  173. 
Gotten,  173. 
Grammar,  49  et  seq. 


366 


INDEX 


Grammatical  agreement,  49-53. 
Grotesque  stories,  list  of,  285. 
Guess,  173. 

Hackneyed  expressions,  185. 
Hackneyed  quotations,  186. 
Hang  and  hung,  174. 
Hardly  and  scarcely,  173. 
Headings,  197-98. 
Healthy  and  healthful,  173. 
Help  but,  174. 
Highflown  language,  150. 
Historical  present,  57. 
Homonyms,  129. 
Horrible  stories,  list  of,  285. 
Hours  of  the  day,  38. 
House  numbers,  37. 
Human  interest  story,  270,  286-87. 
Humorous  stories,  288. 
Humorous  surprise  story,  270. 
Hyphen,  24-25;  see  also  Syllabifi- 
cation. 

I,  150. 

Idiomatic  prepositions,  138-39. 

Idyllic  stoiies,  289. 

//,  174. 

Ill,  174. 

Illogical  coordination,  77. 

Illustration,  245. 

Illy,  174. 

In  and  into,  174. 

In  back  of,  174. 

Incoherence,  67-68,  96. 

Incomplete  comparisons,  89. 

Indefinite  you  and  they,  150. 

Indention,  98,  100. 

Indirect  question,  3. 

Indirect  quotation,  217. 

Inductive  reasoning,  256. 

Infinitive,  subject  of,  50;  split,  79- 

80. 
Initials,  150. 
Ink,  199. 

Insertions,  in  manuscript,  215. 
Inside  of,  174. 
Interjection,  115. 
Interpolations,  215. 
Interrogation  point,  3. 
Intervening  words,  52,  79. 
Intransitive  verb,  complement  of,  49. 


Introduction  to  short  story,  273- 
74;  paragraphing  dialogue,  100. 

Invitations,  312. 

Invite,  174. 

Irregular  verbs,  63-67. 

Italics,  33-35,  93-94;  for  emphasis, 
216. 

Kindly,  175. 
Kind  of,  175. 

Language,  111  et  seq.;  figurative 
(see  Figures  of  Speech) ;  functions 
of,  111;  as  communication,  111— 
12,  113-14;  study  of,  111-19; 
methods  of  studying,  112-13; 
speaking  a,  115-17;  study  of, 
references,  127;  exercises,  129- 
31,  188;  Latin  roots,  133-34;  pre- 
fixes, 134-35;  suffixes,  135-36. 

Latin  roots,  133-34. 

Latter,  175. 

Lay.   See  lie. 

Leave  and  let,  175. 

Lecture  notes,  210-13. 

Legibility,  200. 

Less  and  fewer,  175. 

Letter-writing,  312-27. 

Liable,  175. 

Liberal  translation,  308. 

Library,  arrangement,  328;  cata- 
logue, 333. 

Lie  and  lay,  176. 

Like,  176. 

Likely,  176. 

Literary  ornament,  159-61. 

Literary  translation,  308. 

Local  color,  232;  in  story,  270,  287- 
89;  in  short  story,  275. 

Locate,  176. 

Loc.  cit.,  221. 

Logical  agreement,  71. 

Logical  definition,  252-53. 

Make-up  of  a  book,  342. 
Manuscript,  preparation  of,  199-201 ; 
margins  in,  200;  references,  202. 
May.    See  Can. 
Mean,  177. 
Melody,  236. 
Metaphor,  158. 


INDEX 


367 


Mind,  177. 

Misplaced  modifiers,  78. 
Mispronounced  words,  165-67. 
Mispronunciation,  causes   of,  117— 

18;  correction  of,  118-19;  words 

mispronounced,  166-67. 
Misspelled  words,  46-48. 
Mixed  figures  of  speech,  160. 
Modifiers,     78-80;     exercise,      80; 

dangling,  82-84. 
Money,  representation  of,  38. 
Monosyllables,  39. 
Moral  stories,  list  of,  286. 
Most,  177. 
Murray's  New  English  Dictionary, 

126. 
Mutual,  177. 
Mysterious  stories,  list  of,  285. 

Names  in  narrative,  280. 

Narration,  267-94;  and  description, 
224;  definition,  267;  relation  to 
description,  267;  relation  to  ex- 
position, 268;  relation  to  the 
drama,  268;  forms  of,  268;  with 
plot,  268;  materials  of,  268-69; 
interest  in,  269;  purpose  of,  269; 
study  of  short  story,  269-82 ;  read- 
ing lists,  282-89;  exercises,  289- 
92;  references,  292-94. 

Near-by,  177. 

Negative,  double,  152. 

Neither,  177. 

Nice,  177. 

None,  178. 

Non-fiction  reading  list,  248-49. 

Non-restrictive  phrases,  12-14. 

Nor,  10,  52.   See  Neither. 

Aro  sooner,  178. 

Notebooks,  209. 

Note-taking,  208-14. 

Notes,  for  writing,  213-14;  refer- 
ences, 214. 

Novelty,  striving  for,  149. 

Number,  agreement  of,  51. 

Numbers,  representation  of,  37- 
39. 

O,  178. 

Of,  178. 

Of  a.   See  Kind  of. 


Omissions,     87-89;     exercise,     89; 

from  quotations,  216. 
One,  any  one,   anybody,    somebody, 

and  a  person,  178. 
Only,  78. 

Onomatopoeia,  236. 
Onto,  178. 
op.  cit.,  220-21. 
Or,  10,  52. 

Ornament,  literary,  157-64. 
Ought,  179. 
Outlines,  193-99. 
Out  loud,  179. 

Page  references,  37. 
Paging  manuscript,  200. 
Painting  and  description,  225-26. 
Paragraphs,  98-101 ;  references,  101. 
Parallelism,  72-74;  exercise,  74-75. 
Parentheses,  8,  23-24. 
Participial    conclusion,   in    letters, 

318. 
Participle,  dangling,  82. 
Parts  of  composition,  193-99. 
Parts  of  speech,  114-15. 
Party,  179. 

Passive  voice,  61-62,  69. 
Past  tense,  55. 
Pathetic  fallacy,  232-33. 
Per,  179. 
Per  cent,  179. 
Period,  2-3. 

Personality  and  style,  147-48. 
Phrases,  foreign,  142-44. 
Place,  179. 

Place,  unity  of,  in  drama,  298. 
Placing  of  modifiers,  78-80. 
Plagiarism,  217. 
Planning  on,  179. 
Plays,  294  et  seq.;  reading  list,  303- 

04. 
Pleonasm,  119. 
Plot,  in  drama,  298;  in  short  story, 

278-79. 
Plurals,  40-43;  foreign,  41. 
Poetry,  quoting,  218. 
Points  of  view,  in  description,  228- 

30;  in  short  story,  271-72. 
Possessives,  43-45,  50. 
Possessive  pronouns,  no  apostrophe 

with,  18. 


368 


INDEX 


Precis,  194. 

Predicate,  agreement,  51-53. 

Predicate  substantive,  49. 

Prefixes,  134-35. 

Prepositions,    object  of,    49;    id'o- 

matic  use  of,  138-39. 
Present,  historical,  57. 
Preventative,  179. 
Pronoun,  51,  150;  reference  of,  85- 

86;  omission,  88. 
Pronunciation,  116-17. 
Proof,  257. 
Proper  nouns,  30-31. 
Proven,  179. 

Proverbs,  hackneyed,  186. 
Providing,  179. 
Psychological  stories,  288-89. 
Punctuation,   1-25;  exercises,  7-8, 

14-15,  21-23,  25-29;  references, 

29-30. 

Question  mark,  3. 

Questions,  shall  and  will  in,  59. 

Quite,  179-80. 

Quotation,  11,  215-18;  marks,  19- 

21,  215;  sources,  216;  wrong  use 

of,  217-18;  poetry,  218. 

Raise,  180. 

Reading  a  play,  301. 

Reading  lists,  non-fiction,  248-49; 

biographies,     265-66;     collected 

biographies,  266 ;  autobiographies, 

266-67;  plays,  303-04. 
Real,  180. 
Recommend,  180. 
Redundance,  150-52. 
Reference,  85-87. 
References,  and  footnotes,  219-21; 

drama,     307;     translation,     311; 

on  correspondence,  326. 
Refutation,  257. 
Relative    clauses,    punctuation    of, 

11-15. 
Remember  of,  181. 
Remote  reference  of  pronoun,  86. 
Repetition,  93,  119,  129,  150-52. 
Restrictive  phrases,  11-12,  13-14. 
Rig,  181. 

Romantic  story,  270. 
Russian  short  story,  283. 


Said,  substitutes  for,  277-78. 

Same,  181. 

Scandinavian  short  story,  283. 

Scarcely.    See  Hardly. 

Seldom  and  rarely,  181. 

Semicolon,  5-7. 

Sentences,  structure  of,  67  et  seq.; 
long,  68;  rambling,  68;  stringy, 
68;  shift  of  construction,  68-69; 
exercise,  69-71;  loose,  75-76, 
95-97;  bad  construction,  exer- 
cise, 81-82;  periodic,  93,  95-97; 
periodic  and  loose,  exercise,  97; 
periodic  and  loose,  references, 
97-98;  structure,  exercises,  102- 
10. 

Sentimental  stories,  289. 

Sequence  of  tenses,  55-57. 

Setting  in  short  story,  274-76. 

Shall  and  will,  58-60;  exercise,  61. 

Shift  of  construction,  57,  68;  teDse 
in  narrative,  55. 

Short  story,  length,  269;  concen- 
tration, 269;  types  of,  269-70; 
classification,  269-70;  title,  270- 
71;  person,  271-72;  method,  272- 
73;  introduction,  273-74;  setting, 
274-75;  local  color,  275;  dialogue, 
276;  dialect,  277;  substitutes  for 
said,  111-1%;  plot,  278-79;  con- 
struction, 279-80;  character,  280; 
reading  lists,  by  countries,  French, 
282 ;  English,  282 ;  American,  282- 
83;  German,  283;  Russian,  283; 
Scandinavian,  283;  Italian,  283; 
Spanish,  283;  by  subjects,  drama- 
tic interest  and  technique,  284; 
supernatural,  284;  grotesque, 
mysterious  and  horrible,  285; 
domestic  and  social  life,  285-86; 
moral,  didactic  and  allegorical, 
286;  human  interest,  286-87; 
local  color  and  dialect,  287-88; 
humorous,  surprise,  288;  psy- 
chological, 288-89;  fanciful,  sen- 
timental, idyllic,  289;  detective, 
289 ;  exercises,  289-92 ;  references, 
292-94. 

Should.   See  Shall. 

Sick.  See  III. 

Signatures  in  letters,  317. 


INDEX 


369 


Signs,  112. 

Simile,  158. 

Skeat's,  Etymological  Dictionary  of 
the  English  Language,  126. 

Smart,  181. 

Smoothness  in  sentence  order,  78- 
80. 

So,  77,  181. 

Social  letters,  312. 

Social  life,  list  of  stories  on,  285- 
86. 

Some,  182. 

Sound  value  of  language,  236. 

Spacing  manuscript,  200. 

Spanish  short  story,  283. 

Speaking,  115-17. 

Spelling,  rules,  45-46;  references, 
46;  words  commonly  misspelled, 
46-48. 

Split  infinitive,  79-80. 

Standard  Dictionary,  125. 

Statistical  data,  38. 

Straggling  sentences,  68,  06. 

Study  of  a  play,  299. 

Style,  117,  145-53;  exactness,  128; 
variety,  129;  and  personality, 
147-48;  esthetics  of,  148-50; 
technique,  148-50;  exercises,  153- 
56;  references,  156-57;  in  biog- 
raphy, 264-65;  in  letters,  316, 
321.    See  also  Figures  of  speech. 

Subheading,  198-99. 

Subject  and  predicate,  51-53. 

Subordinate  clauses,  76. 

Subordination,  76-77;  exercise,  77- 
78. 

Substantives,  50. 

Suffixes,  135-36. 

Summaries,  194. 

Sums  of  money,  38. 

Superior  figures,  220. 

Superlative  with  of,  71. 

Supernatural  story,  270,  284. 

Superscription  of  letters,  323,  324. 

-Surprise  story,  270-88. 

Suspicion,  182. 

Swell,  182. 

Syllabification,  39-40. 

Syllogism,  266-67. 

Symbols,  112. 

Synonyms,  127-29;  dictionaries  of, 


129;  exercise,  131-32;  references, 

132-33; 
Syntax,  49  et  seq.;  exercise,  53-54; 

references,  54—55. 
Synthesis  in  definition,  253. 

Tabulations,  38. 

Taste  in  literary  style,  147-50. 

Tautology,  93,  119. 

Technique,  story  of,  270,  284. 

Tenses,  55-57;  exercise,  57-58. 

Themes,  182;  writing,  91-92,  199- 
201,  213-14;  writing,  references, 
193;  references,  208  (lists);  sub- 
jects, short  themes,  203—06;  sub- 
jects, long  themes,  206-08; 
subjects,  exposition,  250-51. 

These  kind,  182. 

They,  182. 

Think  for,  182. 

Those,  182. 

Those  kind,  182. 

Time,  unity  of,  in  drama,  298. 

Titles,  capitalized,  32;  italicised, 
34;  in  short  story,  270-71. 

Too,  183. 

Topical  outline,  194-97. 

Transition,  90-91;  exercise,  01-02; 
in  exposition,  244—45. 

Transitional  expressions,  90-01. 

Translation,  308-11;  Definitio», 
308;  kinds,  308;  prerequisite,  308; 
suggestions  for,  309s  common 
faults,  310;  exercises,  311;  refer- 
ences, 311. 

Trite  (hackneyed)  expressions,  185. 

Ugly,  183. 
Unique,  183. 
Unities,  297. 
Unity,  67-68. 
Uplift,  183. 
Usage,  121. 

Vagueness  in  ideas,  252. 

Verbs,  irregular,  63-67. 

Verbosity,  119. 

Verse,  218. 

Very,  183. 

Vocative,  9. 

Voice.  61-62;  exercise,  62. 


370 


INDEX 


Vowels,  116. 
Vulgarisms,  184. 

Waiting  on,  183. 

Want   in,    183. 

Way,  183. 

Weak   reference,    85. 

Webster's  New  International  Dic- 
tionary, 125. 

When,  71-72. 

Where,  71-72. 

Which.   See  And  Which, 

Whole  composition,  unity  of,  193- 
99;  organization  of,  214. 

Will  and  shall.   See  Shall  and  will. 


Win  out,  184. 

With,  52. 

Word-breaking  (syllabification),  39. 

Wordiness,  150-52. 

Words,  as  units  of  expression,  113— 
14;  study  of,  114,  122-23;  use  of, 
119;  suggestions  for  study,  120- 
21;  usage,  121;  study  of,  refer- 
ences, 127;  for  analysis,  136-37; 
Anglicized,  140-41;  foreign,  140. 

Would.   See  Shall  and  will. 

Writing  materials,  199. 

You,  184. 

Yourself  and  myself,  184. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

A  Short  History  of  England's  Literature.     By  Eva  March 

Tappan. 

A  Student's  History  of  English  Literature.     By  William 

Edward  Simonds. 

Lives  of  Great  English  Writers.    From  Chaucer  to  Brown- 
ing.    By  W.  S.  Hinchman  and  Francis  B.  Gummere. 

Masterpieces    of   British    Literature.      Edited    by    Horace 
E.  Scudder. 

Readings  in  English  Prose  of  the  18th  Century.     Edited  by 
Raymond  Macdonald  Alden. 

A  Victorian  Anthology.    Edited  by  Edmund  Clarence  Sted- 
MAN.     Students'  Edition. 


AMERICAN   LITERATURE 

A  Short  History  of  England's  and  America's   Literature. 

By  Eva  March  Tappan. 

A  Short  History  of  America's  Literature.  With  Selections 
from  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  Writers.  By  Eva  March 
Tappan. 

A  History  of  American  Literature.    By  William  E.  Simonds. 

Masterpieces  of  American  Literature.  Edited  by  Horace 
E.  Scudder. 

Readings  in  English  Prose  of  the  19th  Century.  Edited  by 
Raymond  Macdonald  Alden.    Part  I,  Part  II.    Complete. 

The  Chief  American  Prose  Writers.  Edited  by  Norman 
Foerster. 

An  American  Anthology.  Edited  by  Edmund  Clarence 
STEDMAN.     Students'  Edition. 

The  Chief  American  Poets.    Edited  by  Curtis  Hidden  Page. 

The  Little  Book  of  Modern  Verse.  Edited  by  Jessie  B. 
Rittenhouse.     R.L.S.  No.  254.     Library  binding. 

The  Little  Book  of  American  Poets.  Edited  by  Jessie  B. 
Rittenhouse.     R.L.S.  No.  255.     Library  binding. 

A  Treasury  of  War  Poetry.  Edited  by  George  Herbert 
Clarke.     R.L.S.  No.  262.     Cloth. 


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1909 


PLAYS  OF  SHAKESPEARE 

AS  YOU  LIKE  IT.  No.  93.  With  Introductory  and  Explan- 
atory Notes  and  Suggestions  for  Study.    ; 

HAMLET.  No.  116.  With  an  Introduction,  Explanatory  Notes, 
and  Suggestions  for  Study  by  Helen  Gray  Cone,  Professor  of  Eng- 
lish in  Hunter  College. 

HENRY  V.  No.  163.  With  an  Introduction,  a  Bibliography,  and 
Notes  by  Edward  Everett  Hale,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  English  in 
Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

JULIUS  CAESAR.  No.  67.  With  an  Introduction,  Explanatory 
Notes,  Suggestions  for  Study,  and  a  Bibliography. 

KING  LEAR.  No.  184.  With  an  Introduction,  Bibliography, 
and  Explanatory  Notes.  Edited  by  Ashley  H.  Thorndike,  Profes- 
sor of  English  in  Columbia  University. 

MACBETH.  No.  106.  With  an  Introduction,  Explanatory  Notes, 
and  Suggestions  for  Special  Study.  With  additional  Notes  by 
Helen  Gray  Cone. 

THE  MERCHANT  OF  VENICE.  No.  55.  With  Intro- 
duction and  Notes  by  Samuel  Thurber,  Late  Master  in  the  Girls' 
High  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

A  MIDSUMMER  NIGHT'S  DREAM.  No.  153.  With  an 
Introduction,  Explanatory  Notes,  and  an  Appendix  by  Laura  E. 
Lockwood,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Professor  of  English  Language  at 
Wellesley  College. 

ROMEO  AND  JULIET.  No.  212.  With  Introduction  and 
Notes  by  William  Strunk,  Jr.,  Professor  of  the  English  Language 
and  Literature,  Cornell  University. 

THE  TEMPEST.  No.  154.  With  an  Introduction  and  Ex- 
planatory Notes.     Edited  by  Edward  Everett  Hale,  Ph.D. 

TWELFTH  NIGHT.  No.  149.  With  an  Introduction,  Ex- 
planatory Notes,  Suggestions  for  Special  Study,  and  an  Appendix. 
With  additional  Notes  by  Helen  Gray  Cone. 

SHAKESPEARE  QUESTIONS.  No.  246.  An  Outline  of 
the  Study  of  Shakespeare's  Plays,  by  Odell  Shepard,  Professor  of 
English,  Trinity  College. 


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LITERATURE  SELECTIONS 

Modern  Prose  and  Poetry  for  Secondary  Schools.  Edited 
by  Margaret  Ashmun. 

Prose  Literature  for  Secondary  Schools.  With  some  sug- 
gestions for  correlation  with  composition.  Edited  by 
Margaret  Ashmun.  With  an  Introduction  by  Willard  G. 
Bleyer. 

The  High  School  Prize  Speaker.  Edited  by  William  L. 
Snow. 

American  and  English  Classics  for  Grammar  Grades. 

Selections  from  the  Riverside  Literature  Series  for  Fifth 
Grade  Reading. 

Selections  from  the  Riverside  Literature  Series  for  Sixth 
Grade  Reading. 

Selections  from  the  Riverside  Literature  Series  for  Seventh 
Grade  Reading. 

Selections  from  the  Riverside  Literature  Series  for  Eighth 
Grade  Reading. 

American  Classics.     (Poems  and  Prose.) 

American  Poems.     Edited  by  Horace  E.  Scudder. 

American  Prose.     Edited  by  Horace  E.  Scudder. 

Literary  Masterpieces. 

Masterpieces  of  American  Literature.  Edited  by  Horace 
E.  Scudder. 

Masterpieces  of  British  Literature.  Edited  by  Horace  E. 
Scudder. 

Masterpieces  of  Greek  Literature.  (Translations.)  Super- 
vising editor,  John  Henry  Wright. 

Masterpieces  of  Latin  Literature.  (Translations.)  Edited 
by  G.  J.  Laing. 


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1904 


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